CHAPTER FOUR -
TENSIONS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD
The Islamic
empire built in the 7th and 8th centuries resulted in
numerous short and long term changes in the regions conquered. This growth to
empire also raised important concerns about political leadership in
POLITICAL
CHANGES
During the first years that
The first ruler to succeed
Muhammad was Abu Bakr; he was given the title caliph (meaning deputy or
successor.) Abu Bakr ruled between 632 - 634. He was followed by
the Caliphs Umar (634-644), Uthman (644-656) and finally Ali (656-661.) These
"Four Companions" as they are called based their claim to power on
their connections to the prophet Muhammad, either through family connections or
because they were early, faithful followers. These Caliphs maintained the
precedent of Muhammad and ruled with theocratic power.
However, the strains were
evident in the ever growing Islamic state. First of all, underlying tribal
tensions and violence remained; three out of the four first caliphs were
assassinated and power struggles between Arabian clans continued. Secondly, as
Ultimately, control of the
Islamic world shifted out of
This shift began after
the death of Ali in 661, when an Arabian family that was not closely
connected to Muhammad took control, establishing the Umayyad Caliphate (state) which
lasted from 661-750 CE. It was this Umayyad leadership that
achieved the rapid spread of Islam, reaching
The Umayyad family was
overthrown in 750 by the Abbasid
dynasty; this leadership moved power even more concretely out of
SUNNI/ SHI'ITE
During the Umayyad and
Abbasid Caliphates, as political control was shifting away from the family of
Muhammad and out of
However, under the Umayyad
and Abbasid Caliphs, a critical shift occurred. These leaders focused on the secular
powers of the Caliph - running the state and leading the armies. Responsibility
for religious questions and leadership was handed over to a community of
Islamic scholars called the ulema; it was the ulema that had the
authority to interpret the duties of a Muslim, explained the Qur'an and other
texts and made sure that the Islamic religion did not become corrupted. In
short, power over political issues and religious issues became separated and
resided with different authorities.
SHI'ITE BELIEFS
While the majority of
Muslims accepted this split in leadership between secular political caliphs,
and the religious authority vested in the ulema, one group in the Muslim world
did not. Critics emerged who demanded the return to a theocratic state in which
Islamic leadership tied together religious and political authority and duties.
Further, this group did not like the shift of power out of
Shi'ite Muslims felt that
only Ali was a legitimate Caliph, th7e only legitimate heir to the religious
authority of the Prophet Muhammad, and that only his successors and descendants
carry with them that legitimate authority as leaders of the Islamic
world. They rejected the legitimacy of the other three "Companions"
and certainly the Umayyad Caliphs; for some Shi'ites, they do not accept the
political legitimacy of most secular Sunni leaders today. Thus, one goal
of Shi'ite Muslims is to establish leadership by those seen as successors of
Ali - and these figures are called Imams. It is
believed that Imams have a unique and more powerful ability to understand and
interpret the Qur'an.
A second core goal for
Shi'ite Islam is that an Islamic society must be ruled by, directed by
religious authorities; they believe in the linking of religious and political
authority. They did not and do not accept the legitimacy of a split
between secular and religious authority. In addition, Shi'ite Islam
stresses a more conservative interpretation of Islamic law and practices.
There is more emphasis on the need to look to the Qur'an as the determinant for
what is acceptable, a much more conservative approach to change.
The Shi'ite remained (to today) a minority voice, but a fervent and influential
presence in the Islamic world. Shi'ite Muslims look to the leadership of
Imams - religious leaders invested with political authority.
SUNNI BELIEFS
The majority or mainstream
Muslim community (in the 7th century and to today) is called Sunni. Sunni
Muslims differ from Shi'ite Muslims in a couple of key respects. First,
they accepted other leaders - they recognized the legitimate authority of the
Umayyad Caliphs; they accept the authority of their monarchs or Presidents
today as legitimate Islamic rulers. Second, Sunni Muslims accepted and
accept the split between secular political and military leadership, and the
religious authority of Islamic scholars and the ulemma. Finally, the
Sunni, while of course revering the authority of the Qur'an, also accept the
later teachings, interpretations and laws based on the Sunnah - thus the name Sunni. Sunni Muslims, in
general, are more open to local leaders who are not necessarily Arab, nor
directly related to Ali. They accept the split between religion and state
in terms of having leaders who are not religious authorities, not Imams.
In Sunni Islamic communities, there is also *generally* more openness to
modernization of society, as long as these changes do not directly conflict
with the Qur'an.
Based on issues of
authority and leadership, then, a split, a schism, emerged in the Muslim
world. This division reflected emotional and divisive beliefs regarding
legitimate political leadership, and the degree to which the religion of Islam
should be linked to political power. Issues of how much change is
acceptable in a devout Islamic society is also a basis of conflict and
confrontation. (see
summary discussion) (see
Congressional report summarizing this schism)
From the 7th
century to the present, Shi'ite Islam has remained the minority voice; it is
estimated that today only about 10 - 15% of Muslims are Shi'ite. However,
Shi'ite Muslims were and are a powerful and sometimes aggressive minority
presence. In the past, and in the present, Shi'ite movements have sought to end
rule by those they view as illegitimate secular Sunni leaders and seek to
establish rule by Shi'ite candidates - those who have the right blood ties and
who would rule the society as an Imam - a religious leader. Shi'ite
Muslims have used political pressure as well as violence in these pursuits -
even assassination and revolution to try to achieve their goals.
Only a few times in history
has a Muslim state been ruled under Shi'ite leadership; one example was the
Safavid state in
There are still violent
confrontations between Shi'ite Muslims (often seen as more conservative or
"orthodox, and more militant than other Muslims) and Sunni leaders. The
Iran/Iraq war in the 1980's, which was the bloodiest war fought in the
Today, Sunni leaders in
And, as you are now
certainly aware, current instability and attempts at 'state-building' in Iraq
are dramatically complicated by the division of the country's Muslims into
Sunni and Shi'ite (and even competing Shi'ite) groups, in addition to the
ethnic/nationalist division between Kurds in the North and Arabs in
central/south Iraq. Sunni dominance and repression under the
Baathist party of Saddam Hussein resulted in decades of brutal and murderous
policies directed towards Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims. In current
post-Saddam
Thus, a critical division
in the Muslim "world" is the schism between Shi'ite and Sunni (see map).
Muslims do not all follow the same leaders, nor have the same definition of legitimate
political and religious authority; they do not agree on the relationship
between religion and state, or even have the same definition of what is a
jihad. Although it is dangerous to over-simplify, the more militant
groups in the Islamic world are often those representing extremism of the
Shi'ite faith - terrorist groups in
To understand violence and
sources of instability, then, you need to go beyond the general category of
"Muslim" - you must understand the differences among Muslim groups,
their relations with each other, the interpretations of the Qur'an as presented
by different Muslim leaders and scholars. Drawing on and understanding
these kinds of distinctions is mandatory in addressing the complicated issues
of the Middle East, Iraq, even in Eastern Europe or Indonesia; the need to be
clear on distinctions in Islamic groups and beliefs is a necessity that moderate
voices strive to make clear today. To put it bluntly, it is important to
understand that not all Muslims are linked to the violent actions of Bin Laden,
or other terrorist groups, any more than all Christians agree with or support
actions of the radical, militant Christian groups supporting white supremacy,
targeting abortion doctors and other extremist actions.
Thus, to even begin to
comprehend many controversial and turbulent situations in the world today, you
must understanding religious distinctions between the monotheistic
religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, as well as the differences
within Jewish, Christian and Islamic groups and movements. In
particular, recognizing divisions within the Islamic world itself is more
imperative than ever given the rise of religious based tensions and violence,
not just in the Near East, but in areas such as India/Pakistan,
CONCLUSION
Within a remarkably short space
of time, the religion of Islam emerged in
INTERESTING LINKS
A Shi'ite Encyclopedia
Islamic Glossary of
Terms
Links
to Islamic Topics (From a Shi'ite Perspective)
Shi'a Islam
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