CHAPTER TWO
EARLY EMPIRES IN THE NEAR EAST
The norm in
the ancient Near East (and well into the
modern era in this region) was rule by empires. In the centuries leading up to
1200 BCE and for millennia after the 800's BCE, several important empires dominated
in the ancient Near East, with each new empire closely following on the heels
of its declining predecessor. (There was a relatively brief exception to this
pattern of empires – we discuss this unique period of 1200 – 800
BCE in the next Chapter.)These ancient Near East empires caused destruction and
often very real suffering, but also introduced new ideas and fused the
traditions of different cultures, resulting in the advancement or certainly
transformation of their homeland as well as the cultures under their control.
Below we discuss a few of the more prominent examples.
HITTITES
During the second
millennium (2000 - 1000 BCE), two powerful empires dominated the Near East. One was the Egyptian empire (during the New Kingdom period) discussed last Unit. The other
great empire of the second millennium BCE was created by the Hittites, an
Indo-European people. The Hittite
Empire, based in Anatolia (modern Turkey),
controlled a territory that at one time reached from Anatolia deep into the Northern Mesopotamia river valley. The peak period
of this empire was 1400 - 1200 BCE. Hittite dominance was based largely
on their innovative use of chariots in battle, and their advanced weapons made
of iron. The Hittites are a classic example of the role empires play in
spreading ideas; in this case, the ideas and technologies of Mesopotamia,
conquered and its achievements absorbed by the Hittites, were then spread and
carried throughout the extent of the Hittite empire.
The glory of the Hittites,
however, and their role in Near Eastern development ended in the same way as
Egypt; due primarily to the disruptive attacks of the Sea Peoples at the end of
the second millennium. Although not permanently occupied by these sea
invaders, the battered Hittites lost control of their empire and their period
of historical dominance ended. (Recognize - Turkey was later the cradle of
another great empire-building civilization, the Ottoman Empire in the 14th
century CE; however, this second flowering of Anatolia's power and influence
did not occur until almost two thousand years later!)
After the fall of the
Hittite and Egyptian empires, there was a relatively brief period (1200 - 800
BCE) during which no powerful empire dominated in the Near East; this period was known as the Era of Small
Kingdoms. We discuss this period in Chapter 3. It was during this
brief period that smaller civilizations in the Near East
flourished and developed their own unique characteristics. By the ninth century
BCE, this brief breathing space for smaller kingdoms came to an end. Expanding
from the Northern Mesopotamian river valley, a powerful military force exploded
on the scene, creating a powerful Near Eastern empire that lasted for almost two
hundred years - the Assyrians.
ASSYRIANS
The Assyrian Empire was
launched from the home city-state of Nineveh,
in the northern region of the Tigris river
valley. A civilization rooted in the history and culture of ancient Mesopotamia, the Assyrians had, out of necessity, evolved
with a strong military focus. Constantly threatened or besieged, they
built a culture completely centered around military power and ferocity. Their
dominance of others was possible in large part due to their innovations
in military organization and other aspects of battle. The Assyrians
created the first truly organized system of military forces and established
chain of command. In addition, technological innovations in weaponry and
tactics allowed the Assyrians to not only defend themselves, but to conquer and
dominate their neighbors.
Between the early ninth
century and the late seventh century, (859-612 BCE) the Assyrians conquered
and ruled over societies stretching from the Tigris-Euphrates river valley to
the Nile valley. At this time, it was
the largest empire ever
created. The peak of the Assyrian empire was achieved under the ruler
Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BCE). This empire created ties that enabled
greater change and interchange; in this case interaction came at the cost of
tremendous violence and repression. (see map)
As was discussed in your text, the Assyrians established a deserved reputation
for brutality and cruelty in their treatment of conquered peoples. The
Assyrians often forced conquered peoples to adopt their religious beliefs, and
punished disobedience mercilessly through executions and torture.
Not surprisingly, the
method by which the Assyrians ruled ultimately resulted in their downfall.
Although there might have been some benefits for conquered peoples in terms of
shared technology and increased trade within the borders of their empire, the suffering
inflicted produced hostile and resentful subjects. At the slightest sign of
weakness on the part of these rulers, rebellion erupted. The Assyrian Empire
quickly crumbled once cracks appeared since there was no real loyalty or
support, but rather widespread hatred on the part of their subjects.
Assyrian dominance in the Near East was replaced by a short lived empire also
based in Mesopotamia - the Chaldean Empire or
'New Babylonian' Empire (604-531 BCE). However, this effort to create
another Mesopotamian based empire ended when they were defeated by a much more
powerful force, the Persians.
PERSIANS
As the Assyrian Empire was
crumbling, in the East an even greater civilization was emerging. Ancient Persia, located in what modern day Iran, emerged
on the world stage as a powerful military and political presence, in large part
due to the efforts of one leader. The creation of the Persian
empire is certainly an example where the impact of an individual
had a significant impact on historical developments. Credited as an innovative
political thinker, the Persian king Cyrus, better known as Cyrus the Great, began the
process of empire building by first unifying the two dominant groups in the
Iranian region - the Medes and Persians. This unity paved the way for
Persian conquest and expansion. Building on borrowed military innovations
of the Assyrians, the Persians became a truly dominant military force,
successfully filling the vacuum left by the Assyrian collapse. The Persian empire lasted from 550 to the late 300's BCE.
The size of the Persian empire was stunning. (see map) Reaching far
beyond that achieved by the Assyrians and certainly the short-lived Chaldean
empire, Persians controlled territory east of Persia
as far as the Indus River (in what is today the country of Pakistan.)
To the west, the Persians conquered Anatolia, and moved into the Balkan
peninsula in Europe; thus, the Persian world
included parts of the ancient Greek civilization. Later in our course we
will discuss further the long period of conflict between ancient Greece and Persia. The Persians also ruled
over the Nile River
valley, and extended the empire across the coast of North Africa all the way to
Libya!
At its height, the Persian Empire tied
together in trade, travel and cultural interaction an extraordinary
diversity of regions and people. The word often used to describe the Persian Empire is cosmopolitan. (see map)
The ancient Persian empire differed dramatically from the Assyrians
in how they ruled. This again is credited to Cyrus. In almost complete contrast
to the Assyrians, the Persians did not treat subjects with extensive
contempt and cruelty. The normal practice was to allow conquered populations to
retain much of their native culture, religious beliefs and often even their own
leaders. What was demanded by the Persians were a limited number of
non-negotiable, but for most people acceptable, obligations: pay taxes, support
the effort of empire (through military service if necessary) and do not
ridicule the gods of the Persians.
It should be noted that the
Persians certainly used violence to establish their empire, and treated
disobedience with force. However, for those who complied with the above rules,
there were actually benefits to being part of this empire. Those encompassed in
the Persian empire enjoyed the protection of the Persian army, the political
stability of Persian rule, and a trading network that extended from Persia to Northern Africa.
And a conquered culture did not have to accept a foreign religion or give up
their native traditions to enjoy these connections. The Persians are an
early, and rare, example of cultural tolerance.
This ability to control an
enormous region without relying on constant cruelty and repression is
why historians extol Cyrus as "enlightened". Whether you accept
that judgment is up to you - what is clear is that relatively speaking,
the Persian empire enjoyed the support of many
of its subjects and Persian leaders were able to control an enormous amount of
territory with limited problems of rebellion or upheaval.
It is interesting to
compare the Assyrian and Persian experiences. Although the Assyrians
enjoyed a military dominance and did tie cultures together, their empire was
less extensive and less secure than the Persians due primarily to their
repression, and the hatred and resistance this created. The Persians, on the
other hand, were able to create a much larger area of influence, and an
impressive degree of political stability, due in large part to more tolerant, less
heavy-handed treatment of subjects. Some later empire builders seem to
have learned these lessons; the Romans, for example, were most successful in
building their empire when they followed the example of the
Persians. And the great Roman empire
began its long decline when they acted towards their subjects like the
Assyrians - repressive and intolerant.
In the next chapter, we
look at other civilizations who contributed to the interaction and growth of
Near Eastern civilizations, in particular some of the smaller kingdoms and
civilizations. (see timeline
of entire region)
Interesting Related Web
Sites
Ancient History
Sourcebook (a *must* page for links)
Assyria Photo Album (Many Links to
Images)
Assyria
Online
Assyrian Archives and Links
Images of Ancient
Persia
GO TO CHAPTER THREE