CHAPTER TWO - THE MONGOL EMPIRE
For the
regions of Asia, the Near East and
In just a few decades, the
Mongols swept across the continent, creating an empire that at its height
stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube river in eastern Europe, and
from the southern stretches of the Silk Road to regions bordering the
EARLY MONGOL
SOCIETY
For centuries leading up to
the 1200's, the Mongols existed on the fringes of world history interactions.
Centered in the steppe region that today includes
The structure of their
society was informal. The tribes were linked by blood ties; family and kinship
were the primary bases of loyalty. It was a military based society.
Mongol tribes often warred with each other - the almost inevitable result of a
divided society. Because of the need for defense in a land of scarce
resources and competing groups, those with the military and riding skills
necessary to provide food and security were the elite. The tribal chief
was determined by his military skills and ability to command the respect and
loyalty of the warrior elite.
The religious beliefs of
the Mongols were nature based, polytheistic belief in many deities and an
animistic relationship to the natural world around them based on the worship of
surrounding spirits. The sky, and the color blue, was sacred - not surprising
for a people living on the plains. Shaman, or holy men, provided the
connection between the Mongols and the natural world of gods and spirits.
The Mongols did not have a
formal, structured religion, nor sophisticated cultural or political
development. This proved important; it meant that even though the Mongols were
able to conquer vast regions through military might, in the end, they did not
actually impose or transplant formalized cultural and religious ideas into
these conquered regions. In this way, again, they represented a distinct
and unusual example of empire-building.
JENGHIZ KHAN
Traditionally, the separate
(and usually competing) Mongols had an annual gathering of Mongol tribes during
which inter-tribal transactions took place such as trade and marriage
arrangements. At these annual gatherings, the tradition was to choose a head
Mongol chief for the purpose of mutual defense from neighboring tribes. This
was a position with very little real power; local tribal chiefs only followed
this head chief when faced with an outside and shared threat. The turning
point for the Mongols, and
Temujin took the position
of head chief and transformed it into a real position of leadership
among the Mongol tribes. Based on his fame as a warrior and the awed respect he
could command, Temujin was able to tie the Mongol tribes to him through oaths
and alliances. He created a unity among the Mongol tribes based on their common
allegiance to him; in essence he created a unified Mongol people and army built
on his personality, charisma and the military respect he commanded from the
warrior elite. Building on this core base of loyal Mongol chiefs and warriors,
Temujin then built up alliances with neighboring Turkish tribes in Central Asia,
ultimately creating an impressive army of highly skilled, very tough warriors
led by an unquestionably brilliant leader. Temujin took the title Jenghiz
Khan (also translated as Genghis or Chinggis
Khan) which is roughly translated as "Ruler between the Seas" or
"Ruler of the World." Jenghiz Khan came close to fulfilling this
ambitious title.
MONGOL EXPANSION
The dramatic success of the
Mongols resulted from a number of factors. First and foremost the Mongols were
a very skilled people. The mobility enabled by their tough horses, which was
essential for survival on the harsh Mongolian plains, now enabled rapid
mobilization and deployment of armies against enemies. Mongol warriors could
live off the land (thus keep moving) and their ponies could survive on the
worst scrub grass. This mobility, not tied to cities or supply lines, meant
Mongol armies always exceeded the expectations and calculations of settled
"civilized" armies in terms of their speed and ability to cover
distances in remarkably short periods of time. Foes of the Mongols were
often caught by surprise by their speed and how fast their troops were able to
move. Mongols could also shoot accurately at full speed across long
distances (necessary for a hunting people.) According to some reports, the
Mongol warrior was expert at firing facing backward while galloping. Obviously,
these skills translated into victory on the battlefield.
Another feature of Mongol success
was their willingness to use the most brutal level of violence and terror. A
critical part of the human story of the Mongol expansion is the tremendous suffering
experienced by those conquered. In what was generally speaking a violent time
of war and expansion, the Mongols gained a long-lasting reputation for unheard
of levels of savagery, slaughter and merciless treatment of foes and conquered
peoples. This reputation alone helped the Mongols to intimidate armies, and
sometimes made towns and cities surrender immediately - begging for mercy if
they surrendered without a fight. Terror was also the method by which the
Mongols attempted to hold onto their empire.
Finally, there was the
unquestioned military brilliance of Jenghiz Khan. He understood the subtleties
of warfare, for example the need for espionage. He sent spies into a targeted
city prior to a war or siege to find out information on supplies and internal
divisions. He used tricks and ploys on the battlefield - including the classic
steppe trick of attacking, pretending to retreat, and then ambushing the
pursuing troops. Astonishingly, many armies/opponents continued to fall prey to
this ploy. In the annals of military leaders, Jenghiz Khan is studied alongside
leaders such as Hannibal of Carthage and Alexander the Great for his successes,
and his ability to adapt, and surprise foes.
It should be noted that
although those in the West often used the phrase "Mongol Hordes"
which implies that Mongol success was a matter of numbers, the fact is that the
Mongols were usually outnumbered in battle. The core of the Mongol army was
only about 60,000 men (with auxiliary Turkish allies.) And yet, these
tribal peoples, by some measures "uncivilized", defeated larger
forces, the greatest armies of
THE MONGOL
EMPIRE
Once the energies that
tribes had spent fighting each other were now turned outward, the Mongols (like
the Arabs centuries earlier) seized the chance to conquer their richer, settled
neighbors. Between 1206 and the year he died 1227, Jenghiz Khan initiated
invasions to the south and headed West along the
After Jenghiz Khan's death,
the war machine that Jenghiz Khan created continued under the leadership of his
family. Mongol forces under the able leadership of his sons and grandsons continued
the process of Mongol conquest and expansion. His son Ogedai succeeded him as
the Great Khan, and in the different regions of the empire, expansion was
carried out by his grandsons - men like Batu, Hulagu
(1217-1265) and Kublai
Khan (1216-1294).
Between 1206 and the mid
1300's, the Mongol empire reached its peak. In Europe, by 1242, Mongol armies
had sacked the city-state of
Under the Great Khan, the
Empire was ruled as four
massive regions:
Not all
areas were absorbed; geography proved to be the biggest obstacle to
Mongol forces which relied on tactics developed on the plains of
Another area spared was the
distant region of central and western Europe. Mongol armies did conquer
It is an
important indication of how they dominated the age, however, that the Mongols
(also referred to as Tatars) struck terror in the hearts of Europeans as far
West as
Interesting Related Web Sites
Impressions from Mongolia
Lands
of Genghis Khan (National Geographic)
Topics
in Mongol History - Medieval History
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