CHAPTER FOUR
- THE EMPIRE OF THE INCA
A third
great center of agricultural settlement and "civilization" was
located in
While there are enormous
gaps in our understanding, some general comments can be made about South
American development. It is believed agriculture began in this continent as
early as 2300 BCE. There is also consensus that the Andes mountains, in the
modern states of
Another clear conclusion is
that the very leap of harnessing agriculture in this region was an impressive
achievement. In looking at the terrain that provided the basis for agricultural
development of South American cultures, one truly appreciates the strength of
human resolve and adaptability. The mountainous terrain of the
After about 300 CE,
agricultural civilizations in the
One of the fundamental
features of Andean culture seen in the Moche culture
- and the Incan civilization that followed - was the profound natural wealth in
terms of gold and silver these peoples were able to draw upon. The land
demanded tremendous efforts, but provided rewards in terms of food production
capable of sustaining enormous cities, and precious metals that rivaled
the wealth of any civilization in the
The early Moche
civilization was succeeded by later invaders. As occurred in the Mexican
valley, there was a process of assimilation and accumulation in the Peruvian
Andes. As one culture declined, succeeding civilizations preserved and added to
the achievements and knowledge. The final chapter of pre-Columbian Andean
development is certainly the most famous. In the early 15th century,
a small regional power from the northern mountains in
RELIGION
As we saw in the Mexican
valley and the Mayan culture, religion played a critical role in the Incan
society. The Inca prioritized maintaining close connections to the natural
world including important forces such as sun and rain as well as the animals of
the jungles. As the control of the Incan people expanded, the unifying
force was religion. Conquered peoples were forced to accept Incan gods and
practices.
Most importantly, the Incan
emperor was seen as divine and therefore had to be obeyed. A theocracy
was created by these American leaders, and as was the case in other theocracies
such as
STATE CONTROL
Perhaps the most remarkable
achievement of the Incan culture was the empire they created. We have looked at
many examples of empires in this class, but in some respects none were as
successful as the Incan empire. First of all, it was enormous. (see map) At its
height, this small regional group from Northern Peru conquered and ruled
peoples as far north as today's state of Columbia, and as far south as
Chile! The empire encompassed close to 80 different cultures and regional
communities. In fact, recognize that when the term Incan is used, it refers
primarily to the aristocratic elite that ruled over many other different
cultures and peoples; it was a very cosmopolitan, multi-cultural empire. The
population controlled by the Incan state is estimated to have been perhaps as
high as 16 million people! To give you a comparative perspective, recognize
that all of
The Incan emperor wielded
tremendous power over his subjects. This is one of the most remarkable features
of the Incan state. First of all, the culture of the conqueror was imposed of
subjects. The language of the Inca - Quechua
- was the official and required language. The religious deities and
practices of the Inca were also imposed on those living in the empire. This
reinforced unity, as well as obedience to an emperor who was viewed as a god.
Existing social relations
were disrupted. The state attacked kinship bonds and the clan loyalties that existed
among subject peoples. As part of this destruction of local affiliation, and to
limit resistance and rebellion, people were forcible moved from rebellious
regions and dispersed. Those from "loyal" or reliable areas were
transplanted into trouble spots. Marriages among elite had to be approved
by the state to prevent dangerous alliances. Marriage was also mandated by the
state - people had to be married by a certain age! In short, the Inca
used forcible relocation and social control of their subjects to minimize
dissent and promote state priorities (such as population growth).
The state controlled
virtually all of the wealth in the empire. Most of the land was actually in the
hands of the emperor, his family or a few powerful families. In fact these land
holdings remained tied to the emperor even after his death. The new emperor had
to build up his own land holdings - leading to a constant drive for expansion
by new rulers. In the Incan empire, in fact, most people worked the land as
tenant farmers; the ruling elite owned most of the land and controlled the
resources produced on that land.
The Incan rulers used their
extensive wealth to build public works and state infrastructure. The buildings
and architecture of this civilization were massive in scale, and the masonry
techniques still intrigue observers today. The Incan state mobilized
subjects into forced labor to build the roads and bridges necessary to tie the
empire together. Some of these projects were truly remarkable - including
extensive terrace farming, mountain bridges and tunneling
through mountains that still stand out today as impressive feats of
engineering. An elaborate system of runners was used to travel along these routes,
transmitting the orders and dictates of the emperor throughout the empire. (see link
to page on Incan engineering) Recognize, given that communication technologies/ability
was extremely limited, the ability to hold such a massive empire together was a
clear reflection of the success of Incan policies of force and imposed culture.
Although the wealth and
control largely benefited the elite, there is evidence that the Incan state
also took care of its subjects. There was state assistance for the poor, the
needy, and the old and infirm. During periods of bad harvests, the state
apparently distributed grain. Some have compared the Incan state to
twentieth century states (especially totalitarian) in terms of the degree of
state power, and the degree of state paternalistic meeting of some needs
of subjects.
A final note, the reason
that historians are so fascinated with this empire is not just the degree of
central control that was achieved, nor the size of the territory and population
controlled. The truly fascinating aspect of the Incan empire is it appears that
the Incan Empire was built and sustained ... without a written language!!
Current understanding is that the Inca did not have a written language
to help keep track of all of this territory and to use for communication.
Apparently, much of the issued orders and laws were disseminated through the
system of runners. There was also a method economic record keeping and oral
records related to a system of knots. Chroniclers would remember important
events based on the system and organization of
knots; economic records were maintained the same way.
This is another example of
the intriguing mix of familiar patterns, and distinctive uniqueness we find in
looking at American civilizations. The Inca built an empire that equaled and
maybe even surpassed the empires of Asia or the
DOWNFALL
The Incan Empire, for all
of its power, fell as rapidly as the Aztecs. Again, this collapse was largely
due to the presence of Spanish conquistadors. Through manipulation and
deception, the Incan emperor was captured and executed by the Spanish in the
early 16th century. The elimination of the god-head of the Incan
state revealed the weakness of such a highly centralized system; without the
emperor, military resistance fell apart rapidly. There were some Inca who
retreated deeper into the Andes to avoid Spanish control - at least for a while
- for example withdrawing to the famous mountain retreat of Machu
Picchu. However, while pockets of Incan resistance remained in the
following centuries, the Incan Empire was gone by the early 1500's.
CONCLUSION
In looking at American
civilizations before 1492, one of the striking impressions is the remarkable
creativity of human beings. In the
And yet, as distinctive as
they were, there are also very familiar developments evident - rise of
organized religion, development of trade and wealth, written language, math and
science, massive public works, creative arts and empire building. The
deeper commonalties of humans is vividly indicated by
these comparisons between the "Old World" and the "
The long period of
isolation ended with deadly exposure to outside colonial forces. While
these native traditions survived to some degree as contributing factors in post-Columbian
American history, forced interaction with the rest of the world dramatically
and irrevocably changed the path of American development. This story of
the clashing/blending of the
In the next chapter, we
finish up the course. We will attempt a kind of summation or conclusion
regarding the many people and times we have covered in this course!
Interesting Related Web Sites
Ancient MesoAmerican
Civilizations
Documents
of American Peoples
Inca Mummies - Secrets of a Lost
World
The Lost Empire
(Incan) - NOVA site
Native Folklore
Native
Web
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