CHAPTER FOUR
THE HEBREWS: HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT
AREAS
OF CONTROVERSY
You are well aware
that the Near East/Middle East is one of the most turbulent regions in the
globe. Closely linked to current tensions are fierce and emotional debates about
historical issues related to land claims in this region. In part because there
is so much at stake today, there is tremendous controversy associated
with events and interpretations of the past in this region. It is
important to remember that many of the topics we discuss and periods we
investigate in this course touch on controversial, debated issues; the
historical story of the ancient Near East is one of the most emotional and
divisive topics we cover in this course.
One reason for current
controversy is the limited amount of historical sources. In tracing the history
of the Hebrew tribes in the ancient Near East,
much of the story that is outlined below and covered briefly in your textbook
comes from only one source, the Hebrew Scriptures, also referred to as the
Jewish Bible, the "Written Torah" or the Old Testament. This is
in fact the only written source for much of our knowledge of this
period, although archaeological evidence continues to be sought and identified
related to the events described. Not only is it a "sole"
source, the Old Testament is a religious text - not intended primarily as an
historical tract. This raises divisive questions of how to interpret statements
and how to assess the intention of those writing parts of this document.
In addition, key passages of the Old Testament were written down centuries
after the events they describe (composed and finalized between the 10th and 2nd
centuries BCE). So, while we rely on the Old Testament and archeology to help
us piece together a picture of this period, recognize that there is a lot of
room for debate and controversy! These concerns about limited sources
exist not only when discussing the Hebrews; we face similar concerns when
discussing other ancient peoples and especially the history of other religious
beliefs, in this region and other parts of the world.
What follows below and what
is contained in the text reading is the generally accepted consensus
about the history of the Hebrews in the Near East
and the evolution of their religious beliefs. More importantly, it is certainly
the history of the Hebrews as they understand their history and
religious traditions. Below are two discussions - one is an attempt to give you
an idea of the complexities in describing the history of this ancient
Near East region by focusing on the historical story and experience of the
Hebrews; the second part of the discussion touches on the important religious
ideas emerging from the Hebrew culture.
HISTORICAL
EXPERIENCE
A dominant theme in the
history of the Hebrew people which starts during the early part of the second
millennium is movement. The Hebrews enter the historical story as a
nomadic, tribal people in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley, living in the
region near the Mesopotamian city-state of Ur. They relied on domestic animals but were
not a settled agricultural culture; Hebrew tribes moved between grazing areas
with their herds and were semi-nomadic. The first important movement of
these tribes took place under the leadership of the patriarch Abraham; under
his leadership, the Hebrews tribes migrated southwest into the region known as Canaan sometime between 1900-1700 BCE. This region
of Canaan was later referred to as Palestine by
Roman conquerors, and in the mid- twentieth century it became part of the
modern state of Israel.
In this fertile territory
along the Mediterranean, the Hebrews settled
next to several other neighboring tribes and societies. There is evidence
of the development of settled, complex towns growing after about the 18th
century BCE. However, these settlements were later abandoned when,
sometime during the 17th century BCE (the 1600's), the Hebrews moved
again, apparently as part of a larger migration of *many peoples* from this
region moving south into Egypt
and the fertile Nile river valley.
If you remember from last
week, the 1600's BCE was the period during which the Hyksos and other groups
moved into Egypt.
This large migration of people into Egypt apparently included the
Hebrews and many other smaller civilizations. This migration is attributed to
environmental pressures in Canaan; there is
evidence that this century was a time of drought and failed harvests in this
rain-watered region. Drought would have been devastating to people
dependent on rain watered agriculture, and migration a necessary response.
Although this large influx of people into Egypt
initiated the Second Intermediate Period and temporary disruption of the
Pharaoh's power, remember theocratic rule was quickly reestablished under the New Kingdom. In fact, it was during the period of the
16th century BCE (1500's) that the Egyptian state furthered its power by
instituting slavery. The Hebrews, a small group of loosely organized
new-comers, were obviously vulnerable and became part of the slave population.
They thus remained in Egypt
for generations.
The next transition for the
Hebrews was the movement out of Egypt
which is believed to have occurred sometime in the 13th century BCE
- although exact dates are hotly debated. According to the Old Testament, it
was the patriarch Moses who led the tribes during out of Egypt (Exodus)
and back to Canaan. Upon returning to this
territory, the Hebrews entered a long period of warfare with those who
inhabited the territory - remember there had always been others living
in this region. Now the Hebrew tribes were returning after an absence of
almost three hundred years, and thus they had to resettle by competing with and
displacing those already there, leading to conflict with group such as the
Canaanites, the Phoenicians, and the Philistines. This was a period of warfare,
during which the Hebrews fought to re-establish a settled presence in Canaan (from about 1200 - 900 BCE); ultimately the
Hebrews were successful in claiming some of the territory and creating a Hebrew
state. (see
another description)
The struggles of this
period led to important political changes. For the first time, Hebrews
moved from the traditional structure of tribes, kinship and patriarchal
leadership to the creation of a more centralized formal, institutionalized
leadership - Hebrew kingship. The establishment of a Hebrew state and
formal kingship (from about 1000 - 920 BCE) took place during the reigns of
Saul, David and Solomon (962-922 BCE). Under the leadership of these kings, the
formalized Hebrew state extended its boundaries. However, there were
internal strains among the Hebrews based on religious differences,
tribal/family conflicts and the burdens of living under a more powerful and
expensive kingship. After Solomon's reign, these problems resulted in the
division of the Hebrew state into two smaller states - Israel in the North and Judah in the
South. There is evidence that relations between these two Hebrew states
sometimes degenerated into war, further weakening what were already states of
limited power. (see map)
Recognize,
this period during which the Hebrews reestablished their presence in Canaan, carved out a territory, and finally established
two separate states all occurred during that brief Era of Small Kingdoms.
During this "window", the Hebrews enjoyed the freedom and opportunity
to develop their political, cultural and religious traditions. However,
by the end of the 800's BCE, this period of independence came to an abrupt end.
The Assyrians moved in and by 722 BCE had destroyed, in essence obliterated the
state of Israel, and had
placed the conquered kingdom
of Judah under their
repressive rule. After the Assyrian empire and control collapsed, a
smaller empire, the Chaldean (or Babylonian) empire briefly moved into the
region and captured Judah
in 586 BCE. Hebrews, especially the skilled or elite, were forcibly
brought to the capital of this empire, Babylon,
as slaves; this is referred to as the "Babylonian Captivity".
Fortunately for the Hebrews, the Babylonians (big fish) were themselves
conquered by the more dominant Persians (bigger fish) in 538 BCE.
The Persians, in keeping
with their more tolerant treatment, allowed the Hebrews to return to their
homeland and thousands did, reestablishing a Hebrew presence in Canaan. However over the next several centuries, the
Hebrews living in Canaan faced continued
control by outside powers - the Persians, then Alexander the Great, and then
the Romans. Under
Roman rule (in particular between 100 BCE and 200 CE), the Hebrews were
increasingly repressed and a number of violent confrontations erupted between
the Romans and the Hebrew population. As a result of these conflicts, many
Hebrews left and others were forcibly expelled from Canaan.
In fact, the centuries from
the Babylonian Captivity to the period of Roman control and repression created
a dispersal of the Hebrews referred to as the Hebrew or Jewish Diaspora -
(diaspora means a scattering of peoples.) The Hebrew community
lost its unity and was dispersed and spread throughout the borders of the Roman empire and ultimately spread across the globe. This
Diaspora lasted until the mid-twentieth century, when the establishment of the
state of Israel
in 1948 created a modern Jewish state in this region, a centralized state for
Hebrew peoples. Recognize - the Hebrew Diaspora lasted for over one thousand
years.
A primary justification for
the establishment of the modern day creation of Israel was this troubled history,
the claim by Hebrew peoples that this territory had been the homeland and site
of ancient Hebrews states in the past. The creation of modern Israel, it was argued, ended a
long, largely forced Diaspora. However, the matter was and is much more
complicated. During the time that the Hebrews lived in Canaan,
and for all those centuries of their scattering due to migrations, enslavement
and expulsion, several other populations and cultures lived and
continued living in this territory. Thus current-day Arabs in this region,
known now as Palestinians, also lay claim to the same land
based on the long historical presence and cultivation of the territory by their
ancestors. Some Palestinians in fact trace their historical
claim to the land back to the ancient peoples of the second millennium BCE, and
of course to those who occupied and worked the land during the centuries
of the Hebrew Diaspora. They assert an equally strong historical claim to
the land.
When the British Empire (the last in a long line of imperial powers)
relinquished control of this region after WWII, the United Nations in 1947
proposed the creation of a two-state
solution. The proposal was to divide this region into three political
entities: Israel (a
Jewish/Hebrew state); an Arab state; and the crucial and contested city of Jerusalem (which both
groups wanted control over) was to be an ‘international’ territory,
run under international jurisdiction. A coalition of neighboring Arab
states and some Palestinian/Arab leaders refused to accept this
solution. Without an established international solution and British
withdrawal taking place, Jewish leaders declared the establishment of the state
of Israel
in 1948; this announcement was followed by an attack from hostile Arab states
resulting in the first of many Arab/Israeli wars. Conflict within the contested
territory occurred. The founders of this new state of Israel,
desperate to secure Hebrew claims, enacted policies that resulted in the
erosion and elimination of Palestinian claims to land and water rights,
including outright expulsion of some Arab communities and ongoing dislocation
of thousands from Arab/ Muslim/Palestinian communities. In the following
decades, several wars occurred between surrounding Arab states (home in some
cases to Palestinian refugee camps) and Israel. Within Israel,
violence has been a chronic experience. Only in recent years was some movement
made in the creation of Palestinian control and semi-autonomy (under the
leadership of the Palestinian Authority) in areas such as the Gaza
strip and parts of the West Bank. However,
this has certainly not quelled tensions or violence.
There is,
as you are well away, ongoing violence in this region. Just in the past few
weeks, the steady incidents of violence erupted again into full-blown warfare
with the horrifying results we see on the news. Historic hatreds, competing
claims to the land (based on history *and* religion) that divide many
Jewish/Hebrew and Muslim/ Palestinian citizens within Israel and on its borders has
produced a seemingly intractable cycle of violence and atrocity, escalating
into incidents of terrorist attacks, and increasingly brutal use of state force. (while it is hard to find non-biased accounts of events in this region
– go here for a
reasonably balanced historical overview)
The issue today of who has
the legitimate or most compelling historical claim to the land and to political
power in this region is immensely complicated and clearly an issue that leads
to passionate debate. The continuing violence in this region, and the inability
to establish long term peace settlements is in large part due to the deep and
complicated history of movement, shifting occupation and conflicting claims to
this land. Over the centuries, those empires which took control, and their
policies, declarations, and political solutions have only complicated, not resolved,
this basic dilemma of historical claim to the land. (see timeline)
The blood shed taking place
in this part of the Near East, with devastating results for all who live
in that region, are deeply rooted in competing historical claims to land,
water, and power going back over 3,000 years. You should continue to educate
yourself on the many debates and viewpoints related to these issues to come to
your own understanding of the complicated history of this region - it DIRECTLY
impacts the world you live in now. (see links to
current news analysis through PBS)
RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS
Recognize, during the turbulent
experience of the Hebrews described above, this culture was developing a unique
and influential set of religious beliefs. Keeping in mind the historical story
traced above, we touch on the defining ideas that emerged.
At the time of the first migration
of the Hebrew tribes in the early part of the second millennium BCE, during the
time of Abraham, the Hebrews practiced henotheism - which means
they accepted the existence of many gods but worshiped primarily one god - the
Hebrew god Yahweh. Their relationship with this protector god was based on a covenant
between the Hebrews and Yahweh. A covenant means a binding agreement or
contract.
This relationship between
the Hebrews and their protector god became more clearly defined as the Hebrews
faced many challenges during their migration to Canaan, then their later
migration to Egypt and
enslavement during the New Kingdom. According
to the Old Testament, when the Hebrews did leave Egypt during Exodus under the
leadership of Moses, this relationship with Yahweh was reaffirmed in the form
of a more explicit, foundational covenant. The covenant (pact or
agreement or contract) that the Hebrews codified with their god during this
period is the basis for the Hebrew religion which became known as Judaism - the
Jewish faith.
The covenant
of the Hebrews was based on mutual obligations between this people and their
god. The Hebrews were to worship no god before Yahweh and were to obey
the laws of Yahweh. In return, the Hebrews would be protected as the chosen
people of Yahweh. It was also believed that sometime in the future, with
the aid and protection of Yahweh, the Hebrews would establish a secure homeland
and powerful earthly kingdom, ushering in an age of righteousness, a time of
peace. The core duty was to worship no god before Yahweh. Over the
course of several centuries after Exodus, (and as new passages that would
become part of the Jewish Bible/Old Testament were written), an important new
idea emerged in the belief of the Hebrews - that they were not only the chosen
people of one god among many, but that Yahweh was in fact the only true
god - that the gods worshiped by their neighbors were false. That no other god
could be recognized as true. This is the beginning of true monotheism and
this belief takes written form in the Jewish Bible around the 5th
century BCE.
The covenant entailed very
specific and demanding duties for the Hebrews. One of the major obligations of
the Hebrews to their god was to follow Yahweh's laws. The laws of Yahweh
were written down centuries after Exodus, beginning in the 8th
century BCE and are contained in the Old Testament. The first five books
of the Jewish Bible are called the Torah, the Book of Law. (Go
to The Torah/ The Law) Although most people are familiar with the first ten
commandments of the Torah, the covenant is based on 613 laws that
Hebrews believed, and believe, were laid down by Yahweh. Laws include moral and
ethical commands, as well as strictures on diet, economic interactions, and
family life. Failure to fulfill this covenant meant punishment for the
Hebrews, for their god was a god of law and judgment as well as of protection
and mercy. The collection of the Torah, and other texts such as Proverbs,
Psalms collectively became known as the "Written Torah".
Another significant text in Judaism is the Talmud, a collection of
teachings, and precedents related to religious scholars' interpretations of how
to follow Yahweh's laws.
Judaism,
then, emerged as a religion based on a monotheistic belief in one god, Yahweh.
All other gods were believed to be false. Judaism is also based on the belief
of the Hebrews as the chosen people of this one true god, and of their duty to
follow the laws of Yahweh - to maintain the covenant affirmed during Exodus.
Fulfillment of this covenant, and expectations based on this covenant, are the
fundamental bases of Judaism. Recognize, Judaism was different from the other
religious traditions of this ancient period in a number of important respects:
* First of all - a key difference was
the belief in one god. This set the Hebrews apart from their
neighbors. All other ancient societies that surrounded the Hebrews were
polytheistic. In fact this difference will be a primary source of conflict in
relations with neighbors, and conquerors such as the Romans. Monotheism
proved to be a revolutionary belief - in later weeks we will trace the
development of two other profoundly influential religions based on the core
principle of monotheism - Christianity and Islam. Both of
these world religions grew directly out of the roots of monotheistic
Judaism.
* Second, Yahweh was a god that
demanded not just worship and adherence to laws and rituals, but also moral
and ethical behavior. While Judaism was not the only religion establishing
moral standards in the ancient world, this religion did establish a substantial
emphasis on morals and ethics in comparison to other religions at the time in which
the focus was more on rituals, sacrifice and supplication to the gods.
Judaism is characterized as a religion of ethical monotheism.
* Finally, the god of the Hebrews was
not connected to any one part of the earth. Unlike the nature based gods of the
Egyptians and Mesopotamians, Yahweh became a universal god - not
to be depicted with images and not associated with any particular part of the
earth or nature. Yahweh was not a god of a river or mountain - unlike the gods
of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
It represents the first appearance in the Mediterranean world of a universal
versus a regional nature based god - an idea that would deeply influence
Christianity and Islam. In addition, this ideal of a universal god helped
the Hebrews to sustain their relationship with Yahweh despite their
continual movement and dispersal. In fact, the beliefs of the Hebrews in
one universal god, a god with which they had a special and established
relationship, gave them a common identity and set of laws that sustained the Hebrew
culture during the Diaspora. This belief system is one of the reasons that the
Hebrew culture did not disappear due to conquest, enslavement or expulsion, as
so many other conquered cultures have in the past. The culture survived -
rooted in the religion and adherence to the covenant of Judaism.
The history
of the Hebrews is a vivid example of the interactions, the controversies, and
the innovations that characterized the ancient Near East. Even this brief
overview of the ancient Near East makes clear
the dynamism of this region - and the many cultures and peoples that
contributed to the growth and diversity of human experience in the
Mediterranean world.
In the next Unit, we move
out of this dynamic region of the Near East.
We continue our overview of the four "cradles" of civilization and
look at the development of the great civilizations in the East - first India and then China.
Interesting Related Web
Sites
Internet Sourcebook
- Jewish History
BACK TO CHAPTER THREE
BACK TO UNIT THREE PAGE