CHAPTER TWO - THE GUPTA EMPIRE

The collapse of the Mauryan empire by 180 BCE ushered in a long period of chronic violence and inter-state warfare, which lasted for close to five centuries.  Indians continued to face the threat of outside attacks from peoples and raiders in the north.  During this period of political turbulence, Indians found stability at the local level of the village and based on the rigid social structure sustained by the caste system. Continuity for Indians was found in village life, traditional caste duties and laws, and the understanding provided by their religious beliefs.  Over these five centuries of political violence, the caste system became even more sharply defined; the number of sub-castes or jati increased dramatically.  Brahamism (Hinduism) also evolved during this period, incorporating beliefs and practices from Jainism and Buddhism and solidifying the connection between religion and social duties.  Close connections between religious duty and the social obligations of the caste system secured the continuation of traditional relationships and behaviors.  Although Indians experienced turbulence at the political level of statecraft and war, the villages, the caste system, and religion provided a stable framework for centuries.

THE GUPTA EMPIRE

Around 320 CE an ambitious and politically talented leader arose - Chandra Gupta I (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya.) From his power base near the Ganges River Valley, Chandra Gupta I slowly began to extend control over neighboring territories.  By 335 CE, he had built a sizable state in the north. This process of centralization continued under his son Samudra Gupta (335-376 CE).  The final touches of a unified northern empire were established by his grandson Chandra Gupta II (376 - 415 CE).  The Gupta empire united northern Indian territories between 320 - 550 CE. (see map)  Unification and greater stability under the Gupta leadership produced a prosperous and productive age for India - termed a "renaissance" by some historians.

Under the Guptas, Indian enjoyed a rare and brief respite from constant warfare.  There was a noticeable increase in stability and security.  Energies and monies could be devoted to cultural and artistic development, rather than warfare and military needs.  Trade flourished, thus increasing wealth and cultural interactions.  Gupta rulers themselves supported and encouraged cultural and artistic achievements.  The result of these many constructive influences was, for India, a "golden age".

The Gupta era was a time of vibrant and prosperous trade.  Indian products such as spices, cotton and sugar were in high demand in the growing world market, leading to wealth and increased cultural interchange east and west. Trade connections were strengthened between India and China, and Gupta leaders also encouraged increased trading connections with the Near East and even the Roman empire. Gupta rule was thus a time of economic growth and increased prosperity for Indians in the north.

Another feature of the Gupta empire was the re-establishment of state policy based on religious tolerance, following the successful precedent set by Ashoka Maurya.  While Hinduism was clearly the religion favored by the empire's rulers, Buddhism still flourished; Buddhist pilgrims and scholars from throughout Asia came to India - to study and visit the heartland of this influential religion.  Cultural interactions and influences thrived.

Noticeable areas where Indian civilization also exhibited remarkable achievements during this golden age were in the arts and sciences.  Indian science and mathematics reflected an exhilarating creativity and innovation.  Mathematicians such as the renowned Aryabhatta expanded knowledge in areas such as quadratic equations.  The invention of place-value notation was a product of this empire and period.  During this age, Indian mathematicians are also credited with the use of the number "0" - a critical and sophisticated leap in application of abstract math.  While often mentioned as an Arabic invention - the concept of 0 was actually a product of Gupta society.  Medicinal knowledge and surgical practices reflected impressive degrees of sophistication.

Gupta emperors placed a great deal of importance on the arts, supporting the preservation of Sanskrit masterpieces as well as new poets and writers of epic tales.  This was a time when Aryan (Sanskrit) texts were revived and preserved, resulting in a resurgence in the creation and dissemination of Indian art, architecture and literature.  Perhaps most impressive was the flowering of Indian literature and poetry. The Gupta age was the period when Kalidasa lived and worked.  Kalidasa is considered India's greatest ancient poet and dramatist.  His most famous play is the epic love story Shakuntala.  Because of his brilliance in merging poetry with drama, and based on his insightful and eloquent understanding of the complexities of human nature, Kalidasa's genius and literary importance to India is compared to that of William Shakespeare in Western culture.

The Gupta empire was a relatively small empire, only ever really controlling the Northern regions of India.  The empire also only achieved unity for a brief time as compared to civilizations such as ancient Egypt, China or Rome. And yet, during this brief period, Indian civilization experienced a dramatic and intensive golden age of peace, prosperity, and a flowering in the arts and sciences.  This was perhaps one of the most stable and most creative periods in ancient Indian history. The relative decrease in violence during the Gupta empire allowed Indian civilization to focus energies and resources on creative arts and speculative pursuits, rather than warfare.  It is a poignant indication of what this civilization was capable of when not wracked by war and outside threats.

This golden age ended abruptly due to the familiar combined pressures of internal conflict and outside invasions. The Gupta military fought an exhausting and draining campaign to keep the Huns from moving into the region. Although they succeeded in halting this assault by the Huns, the erosive effects of this campaign contributed to the final collapse of the Gupta Empire around 480 CE.

FRAGMENTATION AND INVASION

With this collapse, India once again was torn apart by regional leaders.  The following centuries were marked by the grim pattern of regional violence and outside threats. In fact, no native Indian leader even came close to matching the unifying efforts of the Mauryan or Gupta leaders for the next 1450 years!  Instead, India experienced increased threats from, or outright rule by, outside powers.   In the 10th and 11th centuries, India experienced a series of Islamic invasions that resulted in the creation of the Islamic based Delhi Sultanate, and later the Islamic based Mughal Empire in Northern and Central India. (see map)  The introduction of Islam by these invaders will further complicate regional differences and divisions in India, with long term effects.

During the the 17th - 20th centuries, the British Empire took advantage of the fragmentation of the region and moved in as a colonial power.   It was in fact British colonial might which truly unified the sub-continent and finally created one centralized state which ruled over the entire region of India.  However, this unification was achieved only by the early part of the 19th century.   And it was not until the British were forced to withdraw from India and grant independence, in the middle of 20th century, that India was finally ruled as a united state by Indian leaders.

Recognize, therefore, the creation of a unified state in India that we see today is a relatively new creation. The deeper tradition of regional differences is still a concern today, particularly since there exist additional sources of division - specifically religious differences between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There also remain the historically based and substantive regional differences in custom, affiliation and dialects.

As India heads into the twenty-first century, there are some questions about the ability of India to hold together as a unified, democratic state.  History tells us that there are deeply rooted traditional political patterns of local power and identification.  As we address in a later Unit - these divisions became more marked and complicated following the introduction of Islam into parts of this region.  And of course, India also faces the destabilizing effects of poverty and rapid population growth.  Given current birth rates in India, it is estimated that in the next 20 - 30 years, India could pass China as the most populated country in the world.  This will intensify already serious political and religious tensions.

In short, this is a turbulent region that you should keep an eye on. Part of comprehending current struggles is recognizing the long history of regional fragmentation and how difficult it has been to create lasting political unity.  This long history of regional division and political conflict  also underlines the importance of social and religious traditions - for centuries the traditions of the caste system and Hindu beliefs provided a stability for Indians that was virtually unknown at the political level.  Their continued presence and rootedness today must be understood with this eye to the past.

In the current situation of warfare and political unrest in Afghanistan and Pakistan (formerly Northern India), be aware that instability and violence can and actually already has spilled over into unstable regions of N. India.  Central Asia is a hot spot in the globe, one that is currently fraught with violence and with a frightening potential for further escalation.  Warfare and political upheaval in neighboring territories are having detrimental effects on the internal unity and stability of India which, based on an historical overview, is questionable and tenuous at best.  These are lessons we learn by looking at the deeper political past of India.  And it makes the remarkable golden ages of Ashoka Maurya and the Gupta Empire all the more impressive and noteworthy.

Interesting Related Web Sites

Buddhism - Links
Internet Indian History Sourcebook

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