CHAPTER FOUR - EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ROMAN
CIVILIZATION
Although
many of the cultural and economic connections established by Alexander's empire
continued after his death, political unity did not. After the empire fragmented
into several Hellenistic monarchies, the pattern of warfare and competing power
in the Mediterranean reemerged. In the power
vacuum created by the collapse of the Macedonian empire, a new civilization
asserted increasing influence and control - Rome. We begin this important
discussion in this final chapter.
THE SHIFT IN
POWER
Roman
civilization is an extremely important subject in world history for a number of
reasons. For one thing, Roman civilization represented the continuation of Greek
ideas and the rich blend of Hellenistic culture in art, philosophy, medicine
and religion. The Romans borrowed heavily both from the Greeks and the broader
Hellenistic world around them - preserving and passing on these ideals.
In addition, Roman culture added their own genius to this rich heritage,
in particular in the areas of politics, engineering and law. The merging of
these three influences - Hellenic Greece, Hellenism and Roman culture, produced
what is referred to as the Greco-Roman tradition. It is this Greco-Roman
culture which became the fundamental and dominant influence in the formation of
European civilization.
Finally, Rome created and maintained the greatest
empire of the ancient world. The story of Roman civilization and Roman
history is a classic example of the destructive and constructive role
that empires play in world history. The Roman Empire ruled
over many of the regions we discussed in this class: the Near East, Egypt, North Africa,
Greece, and Asia Minor. Rome united
disparate cultures for centuries - all societies conquered and ruled by Rome were forever
changed. Rome also expanded into the
more slowly developing region of Europe. In
fact, one of the most important long term legacies of the Roman Empire
was that it forcibly transplanted Greco-Roman culture into Europe.
In other words, because of Rome,
European civilizations were founded on Greco-Roman culture and ideals.
Throughout the
Mediterranean world, Roman control created a period of extensive political and
economic unity and cultural exchange which surpassed virtually all ancient
empires. The Roman Empire was matched in size and scope only by the ancient
empire of the Mongols, and in modern times, by the global empires of Britain, France
and Spain.
However, this integration of so many different peoples was achieved at a high
human cost of violence, warfare, militarism and certainly in some areas,
brutal repression.
In addition to spreading
Greco-Roman ideas, the Roman Empire was the
historical environment and context which gave birth to the influential world
religion of Christianity. It was during the Roman Empire
that the religion of Christianity emerged and spread yet another important
consequence of Roman civilization.
GEOGRAPHY
The peninsula
of Italy which
gave rise to Roman civilization is similar to the Greek peninsula in terms of
its strategic position in the Mediterranean.
This resulted in the same kind of cosmopolitan beginnings noted in Greece.
Although the Romans enjoyed better agriculture and were not as dependent on the
sea as the Greeks, the economic possibility of controlling the lucrative
Mediterranean trade also drew the Romans towards the sea and fueled later Roman
expansion.
The Italian peninsula was a
melting pot region - in fact it was so dynamic, we have only a sketchy
understanding of the many
different groups that migrated and settled there during the early period of
Italian development. Apparently a number of groups moved into this region
by the end of the second millennium BCE. Among these were Greek colonists,
Indo- Europeans (there they are again), Gauls (Celts) and Sabines. These are
some of the peoples that came together under Roman rule and formed
"Roman" or "Italian" civilization.
ETRUSCANS
Sometime
between 1200 - 900 BCE, yet another group moved in, one of the mystery peoples
of the ancient world - the Etruscans. It is not clear where
this culture came from; their language is unconnected to neighboring regions.
Their art is also very different from the traditions of other influential
Mediterranean cultures. While it is true that Roman culture was primarily
influenced by Greek culture, recognize that this little-understood Etruscan
culture contributed important legacies to the Roman civilization that came to
dominate Italy and the Mediterranean. Although there is a great deal of
controversy surrounding the Etruscans, what is generally agreed upon is that
near the beginning of the first millennium BCE, the Etruscans moved into Italy
and dominated most of the peninsula. The Etruscans ruled this territory until
around 500 BCE.
During that period, the Etruscans introduced important patterns and ideas to
Roman/Italian civilization. For example, Etruscan culture was clearly a warrior
culture - emphasizing military power and values. Some of the military traditions
and even the blood sports that became defining features in later Rome are traced back to
these Etruscan conquerors. The Etruscans also played an
important role in the continued evolution of the alphabet. The Etruscan
alphabet, based on that of the Greeks, was the basis of the Latin alphabet. The
Latin language of the Roman empire then
influenced several later European languages (including the one you are reading
right now!) (see
description) Etruscan politics also had an influence on Roman
civilization. The Etruscans were ruled by a military king, but this monarch
conferred with a warrior council; there was a system of shared power.
Certain elements of the later Roman
Republic which
emerged in the 6th century BCE echoed this Etruscan tradition of
shared power. Finally, the Etruscans are considered responsible for
the rise of a truly urban culture in Italy - they were the city
builders. Prior to the Etruscan invasion, Italy appears to have been
developing as a rural region with small villages and dispersed communities. The
growth of dense and influential cities in Italy,
most importantly Rome,
is credited to Etruscan influence.
ROME
Despite the fact that Italy gained from the important contributions of
the Etruscans, Etruscan rule was resented by the different groups living in Italy. In the
late 6th century BCE (around 509 BCE) a rebellion began which
ultimately pushed the Etruscans out of the peninsula. Leading the rebelling
forces and regions against the Etruscans was the city of Rome - the Romans. This
movement to expel the Etruscans took a very long time; it was not until the end
of the 4th century BCE that the Etruscans were pushed out and/or
absorbed. (Here is actually another mystery - what happened to these intriguing
people after their defeat in Italy
is still being debated!)
By around 300 BCE, the Romans
(those living in the city of Rome) had a
dominant position in Italy.
In fact, what actually occurred in the two hundred years of fighting the
Etruscans was a transfer of power. As the Romans led the fight against
the Etruscans, they extended Roman power and control over the peninsula. The
city of Rome became the political center of a
growing, centralized state that would ultimately include all of Italy.
In the process, a very
important characteristic of Roman-based control became clear - a pattern that
proved to be one of the greatest strengths of this civilization. As the Romans
expanded their power throughout Italy
(sometimes in very hard fought battles) they did not treat their Italian
neighbors as conquered subjects - unlike their Etruscan predecessors. Instead,
the Romans included these different regions as part of an
expanding state; Italians became absorbed into Rome's growing state and were treated as
fellow citizens, rather than conquered subjects. The peninsula of Italy
was united by Rome
and emerged as a unified state of fellow citizens. In short, the meaning
of the term ROMAN expanded to include all living in Italy in the
new Roman controlled state.
This willingness to extend
citizenship and belonging in the state stands in stark contrast to the
exclusive Greeks. Think of the benefits for the growing Roman state of treating
new peoples and territories in this manner. Instead of unhappy, rebellious subjects,
they created loyal, supportive citizens. This helped not only maintain
law and order, but in efforts to collect taxes, and recruit soldiers for the
Army. It is a pattern we continue to trace as Rome continued to expand. One of the key
terms to keep in mind regarding the Romans was their inclusiveness - trying
to absorb rather than just conquer. It is considered one of the key
elements contributing to the success of the Rome Empire.
Thus the period 500 - 300
BCE was crucial in the Italian peninsula - it was a time when the city of Rome asserted its power, and tied all of Italy under its
leadership. One way to think of this change is to think about the meaning of
the word "Rome."
In 500 BCE, "Rome"
meant the city. By about 300 BCE, "Rome"
meant the entire region of Italy.
Over the next few centuries, the term "Rome" would come to mean most of the
Mediterranean world! This story of the continued expansion of Rome will be the focus of our unit next week.
We will trace the emerging political state of Rome
(the Republic), the rise and fall of the great Roman
Empire, and the long term legacies of this empire.
CONCLUSION
The collapse of Hellenic
Greece gave way to the dominance of Alexander and the period of Hellenism. When
political unity was lost after Alexander's death, the way was open for the
Romans to establish their control of the Mediterranean world. The culture that
emerged and was spread under Rome
was a result of the blending of Hellenic and Hellenistic ideas, as well as the
particular genius of the Romans. This complex and dynamic period produced
the Greco-Roman heritage that will be the dominant foundation of modern Western
societies. Next week we discuss the rise and fall of the Roman Empire.
Interesting Related Web
Sites
The Etruscans
Etruscans on the Web
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