This Unit, we continue our discussion of both of these great Asian civilizations.  Specifically, we focus on key political developments and their consequences, first in India and then in China.  Tracing these stories will take us into the CE (AD) period - in fact all the way up to the 13th century CE.   In past semesters, I addressed the events and achievements of these later centuries in Asia farther along in the semester, taking a chronological approach to the topics.  However, it makes more sense to spend this Unit building on the knowledge of the past two weeks, continuing to trace developments in these two remarkable, traditional civilizations.  Since you are now grounded in their defining social and religious patterns, we can proceed to focus on political developments during the later centuries when these civilizations reached maturity; in fact we cover the regimes that represent the "peak" or what some call their "Golden Ages".

As we continue our discussion of India and China, we should emphasize the key defining feature of both cultures - they were traditional societies. Many important cultural features discussed over the past two weeks remained prominent parts of their civilization and history. The caste system and Hinduism in India, and Confucian ideals in China, sustained compliance and adherence to traditions, and thus there was a visible continuity over time and across generations.  In fact, one historical lesson is clear, in both civilizations, traditional emphases provided valuable stability during periods of political upheaval.  Despite obvious differences in the dynamic political histories of India and China, in both societies people turned to and indeed strengthened social and religious traditions during times of political crisis.

POLITICAL PATTERNS IN INDIA

In discussing the political developments characterizing Indian history, recognize, despite the protection provided by the Himalayas, Indian development was affected in important ways by the influence of other cultures - through the Khyber Pass.   External influence was introduced through trade and outside conquest. Starting with the Aryan invasion, India's northern regions during key periods experienced the forcible control of the Persians, Alexander the Great, and Central Asian peoples such as the Kushan. In later centuries, India was invaded and conquered by Muslim invaders; finally, the British dominated India as part of their world empire imperial control until 1947.  These invasions brought to Indian civilization new ideas, technologies and even artistic influences. The downside was, of course, violence and political turbulence for Indian peoples.

One reason why India was often vulnerable to invasion was due to political division. For most of its history, certainly its ancient history, India was a politically fragmented region. These regional divisions were primarily due to geography and constant competition between local kings.  while religious and traditional social patterns tied India together culturally, politically the region remained divided for most of India's ancient history.  Only rarely in India's history was this region tied together under one unifying ruler, and usually unity was achieved under the dominant power of an outside invading force such as the Islamic Mughal Empire or the British Empire in the modern era.

There were two important periods, however, when several regions in India were drawn together into an empire led by Indians - the Mauryan Empire (322-232 BCE), and centuries later the Gupta Empire (320 - 480 CE.)   Although compared to the empires of Alexander, Rome or Han Dynasty China, these Indian Empires were short lived and not very large, the fact is that these periods of relative political stability achieved under the Mauryan and the Gupta leadership created two of India's golden periods - eras of tremendous creativity in the arts, literature and in investigative thought.
 

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

The first great Indian empire builder got a head start by building on the conquests of Alexander. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great and his Macedonian/Greek troops swept across the Indus River valley and further East in a violent campaign. After rebellion by his troops, Alexander focused back on the West, and began the process of consolidating his empire.  When he died in 323 BCE, his empire began to splinter into regions ruled by various generals and local leaders.

In northern India, an ambitious Indian king named Chandragupta Maurya moved into the northern regions of the Indus River valley, filling the vacuum left by Alexander's death in.  After defeating the Macedon general Seleucus, Chandragupta began to expand south. He was able to bring under his control much of Northern India before he retired from power to pursue the religious life of a Hindu ascetic.  Not only did he win battles in the field, Chandragupta provided an important foundation of an empire -a state structure using borrowed administrative techniques from the Persians.  These efforts created the foundation of a bureaucratic state - the Mauryan Empire. (see link to treatise on government written by Kautilya, an early Mauryan official.)

ASHOKA MAURYA

Mauryan expansion and the growth of this centralized state continued under the leadership of Chandragupta's son, Bindusara. In 274 BCE, Bindusara died, leaving the Mauryan throne to his eldest son. However, a younger son, Ashoka (Asoka) challenged his brother for succession, and after four years of brutal warfare, Ashoka Maurya established his control of the Mauryan empire in 269 BCE.  In spite of these violent and ruthless beginnings, Ashoka proved to be one of the most important and cherished political and spiritual leaders in Indian history.  (Recognize - up until the last few centuries, Ashoka was thought by Western scholars to be more legend than fact; it was only with the discovery of inscribed pillars stating the principles and laws of Ashoka's reign that his achievements were established as historical fact by the West.)

In 260 BCE, Ashoka was still pursuing the goal of uniting India under Mauryan rule, pushing control south.  (see map)  He fought a notoriously bloody battle against the independent kingdom of Kalinga - the estimates are that tens of thousands of people were slaughtered in this campaign. Although he won, stories tell that Ashoka was shaken and appalled by the campaign, and underwent a conversion experience based on his horror at the bloodshed. Renouncing his belief in Hinduism (and his caste obligations as a Kshatriya) Ashoka became a fervent Buddhist. Until his death in 232 BCE, Ashoka attempted to rule the Mauryan empire as a Buddhist state, based on the principles of Buddhist dharma and the ideals of non-violence and compassion. Compared to the political/social models we have examined in other parts of the ancient world where the aim of the state was simply security, and power for the elite, this was a remarkable experiment! 

Ashoka's personal Buddhist convictions were translated into state policy in a number of ways.   He began by explicitly establishing the ideas of Buddhist dharma (moral law) as the basis for his rule. To publicize these principles, Ashoka had numerous stones inscribed with edicts (laws) set up all over the empire. Although only ten of these stones survive, it is estimated that at one time pillars (each weighing about 50 tons and standing 40-50 feet high) were scattered throughout India, as well as modern day Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These are referred to as the Rock Edicts, and they set forth unique political principles of tolerance and compassion.

One of the most notable features of Ashoka's rule were the reforms aimed at creating a more compassionate state. The Mauryan Empire under Ashoka stopped wars of aggression, although the military still fought to defend the empire. Since there were no more wars of aggression by the Mauryan state, the unification process ceased.  Judicial reform reduced the cruelty and harsh punishments of the legal system. Citizens of the state were encouraged to behave with compassion towards the poor.  In typical Indian fashion, this compassion extended to the natural world.  The hunting of certain species of animals was forbidden.  Reserves were established for the protection of animals and habitat, and cruelty to animals was forbidden!

Ashoka also attempted to create what historians refer to as a paternalistic society - one in which the state had a great deal of power and heavy taxation, but where the state also had increased obligations to take care of the people and ensure a certain quality of life. (see Rock edicts)   Increased state power included expanded bureaucratic control and more taxes.  The state used these taxes to undertake a number of public works projects; the Mauryan state paid for and directed the digging of wells, irrigation projects, importing of herbs for medicinal purposes and even the planting of trees and creation of rest stops for those traveling the roads of the empire!

Another task that Ashoka undertook was to promote Buddhism. He spent state funds building sites of worship and preserving the texts of Buddhism. Ashoka also promoted the spread of Buddhism by sending missionaries to neighboring countries. Although Buddhism had already begun to spread slowly through trade and interaction, the focused effort of Ashoka notably increased the exposure of other societies to Buddhism, and thus accelerating the diffusion of this religion and its increasing importance as an Asian, not just an Indian, religion.

Recognize, even though Buddhism was encouraged, Ashoka did not repress Hinduism or Jainism. In fact, state funds were also used for improvement of sites for these religions. Under Ashoka, there was a governmental section charged with promoting the practice of all religions, not just Buddhism. In his rock edicts, Ashoka made an explicit commitment to religious tolerance - this alone marks his rule as distinctive and remarkable in human history. (see summary)

Buddhism - Links
Internet Indian History Sourcebook