alex2

CHAPTER THREE - HELLENISM

The political borders of Alexander's empire did not long survive his death; however the links that he created did continue, promoting increased interchange between Asia and the Mediterranean world. The period of interaction established by Alexander continued long after his death and is referred to as the period of Hellenism (323 - 100 BCE) The cities that he founded supported ongoing and extensive trading connections; as we have seen, trading routes are pathways for the exchange of language, religious ideas, culture and technology. Many of the Greeks who fought or followed Alexander remained in distant outposts of the empire and thus continued to influence Persian, Syrian, and in particular Egyptian society.

HELLENISTIC MONARCHIES

After the death of Alexander, there was no successor who could hold on to the far-flung territories of his empire. Within a few years, a number of Alexander's generals carved out pieces of the empire, dividing the territory into a number of smaller kingdoms or states. In Egypt, the Greek Ptolemy I established a dynasty (the Ptolemaic dynasty) that ruled for almost 300 years; the Antigonids ruled in the homeland of Macedonia. Seleus founded the Seleucid empire which ruled over the regions of Syria and Babylon. The Parthian leadership took control in the Persian heartland. Chandragupta Maurya (as we discussed) began to consolidate his control of Northern India. Other leaders carved out smaller territories - the brief period of political unity created by Alexander ended as rapidly as it was created. (see map)

Many of these Hellenistic monarchs continued policies initiated by Alexander, including the reliance on Greeks as administrators and architects. Hellenistic monarchies also sustained trading and cultural connections. The interactions and interchange of East and West, such a dominant feature of the Hellenistic age, continued for over two centuries.

HELLENISTIC CULTURE

A defining experience of the Hellenistic age was the blending or intermixing of peoples, languages, religious beliefs and knowledge. We mentioned several weeks ago the dynamic and cosmopolitan interchange that took place under the Persian Empire. The empire and age created by Alexander was an even more remarkable example of this kind of integration of East and West. Greeks and Greek ideas influenced cultures in the Near East and as far East as India. And the Hellenistic exchange went both ways. Eastern ideas and achievements deeply influenced later developments in Mediterranean cultures. The Greeks and other Mediterranean cultures were significantly enriched by greater exposure to the sciences of Babylon, and the art and religious ideas of Persia and India. There were a number of intellectual and cultural areas where this Hellenistic fusion was clear.

Hellenistic Greek became the "universal language"' of the Hellenistic world, in the same way that in other regions and centuries the widespread use of the Latin, Arabic, Chinese and English languages allowed communication between different regions and civilizations. Interaction and sharing also took place in terms of ideas and art. For example, sculptures in India from the Hellenistic period clearly reflect the influence of the humanistic emphases of the Greeks. The Hellenistic age was also a dynamic period in terms of philosophy. The intellectual traditions of Stoicism and Epicurianism were products of this rich cultural blending.

For their part, Greeks brought back to the West a fascination with the astronomy and astrology of Babylon. Many mystery cults with roots in the religions of Asia Minor and Egypt became popular in Greece, and deeply influenced later development of Roman civilization as well. Again, this exchange was mutual. The Egyptians adopted the Greek god Dionysus, and the Greeks were drawn to the Egyptian goddess Isis.

This kind of interchange, then, led to the maturing and enrichment of all cultures. In areas such as science, mathematics, and geography, the results were advancements shared throughout the Hellenistic world, for example the mathematical advances of Euclid and Archimedes (who developed brilliant mathematical models which foreshadowed calculus). Knowledge and investigation in the areas of medicine and astronomy reflected exciting challenges and innovations. The Hellenistic age was a vibrant time and the benefits of cosmopolitan interchange influenced all of the regions involved. Later the Romans, and much later the Islamic world built on Hellenistic achievements in philosophy, science and communication.

As an example of the dynamism and cosmopolitan richness of the Hellenistic world, there is the fascinating story of the city of Alexandria, a central city in Hellenistic Egypt. This was a city founded by Alexander (obviously!) and was intended to be a cosmopolitan and trading center in his empire. After his death, the city came under the leadership of the Ptolemaic monarchy. As someone deeply influenced by Alexander's dream of an integrated and cosmopolitan society, Ptolemy I founded an elaborate complex of buildings and institutions for the pursuit of knowledge and learning. This included a university and research institution called a Museum, after the Greek Muses of arts and sciences. This learning complex included the impressive Library of Alexandria. There is a great deal of legend and conflicting information about this library, but the consensus is that it was intended to be the collection of all the important works of the Hellenistic world - a repository of human wisdom from the East and West. It is reported that massive numbers of scholars and slaves were employed to copy out the great texts produced by diverse human societies. Considering that transcription and copies were done by hand, it is staggering to think the library might have contained as many as 300,000 - 500,000 scrolls or volumes! Ptolemy's goal included collecting all the great works of all the Greek authors. Although this goal was never realized, it is believed that the library contained most (or all?) of the works composed by writers such as Plato, Greek scientists and the brilliant dramatists of Classical Greece. In addition to the Greek world, the library contained important works from Persia, Africa, the Hebrew scriptures, and Indian texts in their original Sanskrit form.

To give you a sense of the stunning scope and size of this collection, recognize that as late as 1450 CE, (before movable type) it is estimated that all the libraries in all of Europe contained only one tenth that number of books that were found in this great ancient Hellenistic library! It was the greatest collection of human writings and wisdom ever assembled - not matched until the modern age. Truly, the library of Alexandria was a symbol of respect and appreciation for the wisdom and contributions of the different cultures in the Hellenistic world.

Tragically, the library was destroyed in several different fires (primarily from invasion, warfare and violence) beginning around 44 BCE as the Romans consolidated control in this region and culminating in 640 CE, when Islamic invaders stormed the city. There is also evidence that religious struggles between followers of ancient beliefs and the newly emerging Christian religion contributed to this destruction - with Christians destroying "pagan" works and art contained in the library. In a pattern common in history, warfare and conflict wiped out one of the greatest legacies of Alexander's Hellenistic empire. It is believed that the numerous fires in the library and its final destruction resulted in the loss of some of the only copies of many ancient works. To give you a sense of what was lost, in part as a result of these fires, today there are only 44 Greek plays that have survived from the Hellenic and Hellenistic age. It is estimated that originally there were hundreds more. Just looking at four prominent Greek playwrights - Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides and Aristophanes - it is believed they wrote a combined 359 plays!! We have today only a handful of those which survived. In short, what remains from the ancient era is only a fraction of what the Greeks and other ancient civilizations actually produced, and there is no telling what other examples of the accumulated wisdom from other cultures were lost forever when the library and works it housed fell victim to the ever-present forces of violence and conquest in the Mediterranean and European regions. (see further description of library)

A final important note about the Hellenistic age - this culturally dynamic age paved the way for the emerging Roman State and Empire. Roman civilization (our focus next chapter and in the next Unit) was clearly influenced by the rich blend of Greek and Eastern cultures - the lasting legacy of Alexander the Great and this Hellenistic age. The greatness of Rome was profoundly indebted to and built on the foundation of ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world.

GO TO CHAPTER FOUR
BACK TO CHAPTER TWO