CHAPTER THREE
COLONIAL EXPANSION INTO ASIA
New
Imperialism produced aggressive, expansionary actions by industrial powers in Asia and the Pacific in the 19th century,
resulting in dramatic transformations. From 1800 - 1900, regions which were
still independent could no longer stave off colonial forces. In Southeast Asia France moved into Laos,
Vietnam, and Cambodia.
Britain, from its base in India, drove deep into Afghanistan
and Burma (Myanmar). In Indonesia, the
Dutch, used their territorial hold in Java as a base to sweep across the rest
of this territory bringing close to 3,000 miles of territory under its
colonial rule. Pacific Island communities came under the German, British,
French and U.S.
control.(see
map) Each of these episodes were violent, complex, and produced legacies we
continue to confront today. In these final two chapters, we focus on China and Japan to demonstrate the significant
and irreversible impact of New Imperialism on these civilizations.
CHINA AND JAPAN
Even
the strongest Asian powers were profoundly impacted by the era of New
Imperialism. China and Japan entered the 19th century as
autonomous, regional powers, fiercely protecting the integrity of their
borders. Both powers had for centuries maintained a foreign/economic policy
based on semi-seclusion and strictly limited contact with the West.
However, by the mid-1800's, due to increasing pressure from industrialized Western
powers, both China and Japan experienced political rebellion, economic
vulnerability, and loss of sovereignty. The leadership in China was
ineffective and slow in its response to the aggressive challenges represented
by Western powers. Japan, on the other hand, while initially vulnerable,
recovered from initial losses and was ultimately able to recover its
sovereignty - and even join in the imperial race.
Asian
power and political relations were thus drastically transformed as a result of
colonial impact. By the early 20th century, China,
for centuries the dominant power in Asia, was
in the throes of revolution and decline. Japan, traditionally a marginal
presence, responded to Western intrusion by adopting ideas and knowledge and
created an industrial military base of power, emerging as a competitor in
Asian/Pacific colonial affairs. We focus on China
first, then compare this experience to Japan to better understand these
significant consequences for Asian societies.
CH'ING DYNASTY
For centuries, China traded on a limited basis, with the
West, largely through Silk Road land routes
and "middlemen" states. Even with the advent of European sea
expansion and sea based trade, China
kept Western trading powers at arms length. Under the Ch'ing Dynasty
(1644-1912), China
maintained strictly limited interaction with the West through several
restrictive policies:
- In the early 1800's, there were still only two port
cities (Canton and Macao) open to Western ships
- Foreign/Western merchants were not allowed to buy
property or establish a permanent presence on Chinese soil
- There was virtually no travel outside of these trading
cities - the rest of the country was closed to foreigners
- Families and missionaries were not allowed in, since
these groups symbolized a permanent Western presence
- Western merchants had to trade though state protected
monopolies
- State officials kept a close eye on ships and crew when
in port
- Once trading was done, foreigners were expected to
leave immediately
Europeans,
in particular the British, were increasingly frustrated by these limitations.
Access to Chinese markets was obviously minimal; moving goods deeper
into the country from these southern ports resulted in higher costs and few
buyers. Further, the Chinese government and people showed little interest in
European goods or even diplomatic
interaction with the West. (see 18th century Chinese depiction of a British
sailor!)
THE "OPIUM
WAR"
Tensions increased in the
19th century as European appetites for Chinese goods kept growing. The
Chinese were not reciprocating by buying European goods. The Chinese
maintained a steady export to Europe of
luxury products such as porcelains and silk, and of course tea. In return, the
Chinese demanded ‘cash’ – or more specifically, scarce
silver. The fact that few European goods were purchased meant that this silver
did not flow back to the West. There was a growing frustration with this
situation and strong desire to open up China as a stronger market. Due
to the power and economic goals fueled by industrialization, Western countries
became even more determined to tap into the potentially enormous Chinese market
to mass produced goods and correct this trade imbalance. Recognize, the primary
Western / British goal in pressuring China
in the 19th century was not to grab colonial control of
territory, but rather to open up China's markets to the flood of
industrial goods. Unlike the colonial experience in Africa, European New
Imperialists in China
were not interested in territorial possession, but rather political and
economic influence and control.
China for decades ignored Western
concerns about the lopsided flow of silver. When special envoys came (since China did not
allow a standing, permanent "barbarian" diplomatic presence), the
Chinese response was dismissive and disdainful (see letter sent to
British monarchy). Then, the British discovered something the Chinese would
buy - opium. Sale of this product solved
the British silver problem; opium could be grown cheaply in the colony of India, and
sold, for silver, to a constant and ever growing group of addicts. The Ch'ing emperor
banned the sale of this product to protect subjects from its debilitating
effects, and to stop silver from flowing back to Britain. The British ignored this
ban and became opium
smugglers. Resulting tensions between Chinese officials and British
merchants/sailors finally erupted in 1839 into outright war. This war, called
the Anglo-Chinese War or more commonly the Opium War, was
basically a battle over access to markets and economic control. China was fighting to maintain control of its
borders and economy; the British fought to open up China to ensure this massive market
for their goods - primarily industrial products.
"UNFAIR
TREATIES"
The result was never really
in doubt. The industrialized British navy bombed defenseless coastal cities;
non-industrialized China
found itself hopelessly overpowered. In 1842, China was forced to submit to the
harsh terms of the Treaty of Nanking. This treaty reflected the
drastic imbalance in military and economic power between these two countries. China made all the concessions, including giving
over control of the strategic island
of Hong Kong to the
British. The British rapidly made this island a base for its Asian operations.
(In fact, British political and cultural dominance continued until 1997 - when
control reverted back to China; British rule in Hong Kong was a lingering
remnant of this period until the late 20th century.)
Under the terms of the
Treaty of Nanking, China was also forced to open up four more ports to British
(and other Western) ships. Foreigners were allowed to buy property and travel
relatively freely in China.
Foreign families would be allowed to own property and settle on Chinese soil.
And ultimately, it was determined that foreign citizens such as the British
would be regulated by their own laws and courts (the policy of
extra-territoriality); this meant loss of Chinese legal control over foreigners
in its borders. Other industrialized powers such as the U.S. and France
quickly stepped in and demanded (and received) the same concessions. In
essence, China
lost the ability to regulate its own trade and borders and lost control over
the foreigners in its territory - an obvious loss of sovereignty (autonomy).
The reaction of the Chinese
government and people was of course anger and frustration. After thousands of
years of strength and cultural pride, the "Middle Kingdom" found
itself vulnerable, forced to submit to the demands of outside
"barbarians". In fact, continued resistance and hostility towards
Westerners ultimately led to continued clashes. Again, easy Western victory
ushered in a number of additional "harsh" or "unfair"
treaties, including the Treaty of Tientsin (1860). These treaties further
stripped China
of power. As a result of this later treaty, 11 more port cities opened
(effectively opening up the entire coastline), and missionaries were to be
allowed to travel the interior and build permanent structures. The sale of
opium was legalized.
By 1860, China was no
longer sovereign, no longer in complete control of its borders and laws. Even
though a Chinese emperor still ruled, the fact is that the Ch'ing leadership
was forced to make continual concessions to Western desires for greater access
to markets. And control was not just exerted by the British; by the end of the
century, France, the U.S. and Germany had demanded and received
similar concessions, strongly influencing Chinese economic policy.
China also lost territory. Although not
partitioned and occupied like Africa, aggressive powers saw the decline and
vulnerability of China
as an opportunity to move in, encroaching from all sides. This shrinking
of the Chinese Empire and state was called the "carving of the melon."
(see
map)
- The British moved in from the West claiming Chinese
territories bordering India
and Burma
- France moved into regions of
Indo-China that had traditionally been Chinese tribute states
- Russia moved into Manchuria
in the North
- Japan (discussed next chapter)
displayed the success of its industrial revolution by defeating China in the Sino-Japanese war (1894-1895)
and seizing Formosa (Taiwan) (see
map)
The United States, which had a strong interest in
the Chinese market, did try to prevent all-out colonial land grab (which would
result in U.S.
loss of access to markets). It advocated an "Open Door" of
access and competition in China
- so U.S.
goods could enter and compete, successfully, in this massive market. This U.S.
position of limiting direct territorial control so their goods could compete is
credited by some analysts as stalling Europeans from pursuing outright
territorial conquest, and an important reason why China remained under Chinese
leadership. The fundamental fact was actual independent control and sovereignty
was lost; Chinese leaders were forced to answer to outside pressures and
dictates.
REBELLION
Tremendous frustration
resulted from this loss of control and autonomy. Rebellions erupted in the
country; riotous violence was directed at the hated presence of Westerners, but
also aimed at the Ch'ing Dynasty which allowed this humiliation.
The Taiping rebellion
was a massive uprising which erupted in 1850 and this rebellion in the
countryside was not fully subdued until 1864! In 1900, the Boxer rebellion
broke out, another massive revolt vividly indicating anti-Ch'ing and
anti-foreign passions. (see
discussion)
The response of the Ch'ing
leadership to the devastating erosion of power and control was conservative.
Remember, China
built its power and wealth on the bedrock of a traditional, conservative focus.
Even in the face of the serious threat from industrial powers, only a few
voices were ready to call into question the conservative, traditional policies
going back millennia.
Those reformers who did
advocate dramatic changes to strengthen China's position vis a vis the West
were rarely heard nor given sufficient opportunity to pursue that response.
There was an attempt at a "self-strengthening"
movement to build up power and modernize military weaponry, but this initiative
failed due to corruption and inadequate governmental support. At the end of the
century, a group of reformers pushed for an ambitious program of change based
on Western texts and social sciences. They gained brief political influence in
1898 and pursued internal changes but were ultimately stopped; this brief
flurry of reform is called, tellingly, the "hundred days of reform".
In fact, it was not until 1905
that a true break with the past occurred in areas of education and power.
The civil service (Confucian) exam system
was abolished. This exam, which emphasized mastery of tradition and ancient
classics, had been used to select governmental officials since the Han Dynasty
(206 BC - 220 AD). Abandoning this system of leadership selection was a
visible step away from a traditional focus. Texts from the West and Japan were now
widely translated. After 1905, students were finally sent to other
countries to study Western knowledge and power, for example students studied in
Britain, the U.S. and even Japan, (which had undergone reform
decades earlier). However, these reform measures were too little, too late;
they are referred to as "eleventh hour" actions. Rebellion continued,
the humiliating loss of power to Western countries persisted, and in 1911, the
Ch'ing Dynasty, having clearly lost the "Mandate of Heaven",
collapsed. (see
edict of abdication)
Recognize, the collapse of
this Dynasty represented much more than the end of a dynasty (which had
happened several times in Chinese history.) This was the end of the dynastic
system itself, the end of the "Emperor" which was the basis of
Chinese leadership dating back to 221 BC. No new dynasty arose -
the bureaucratic system and central control itself collapsed; an imperial
system dating back thousands of years, ended forever. Thus, China entered
the 20th century in a state of disarray and instability. With the
end of the Confucian exam system and the collapse of the dynasty, effective
central control ended.
From 1911 into the 1920's,
competing groups attempted to implement their vision of China's future.
Some attempted to restore some kind of modified monarchy and reestablish
elements of the traditional structure. In far flung regions, powerful families
simply took advantage of the collapse of the dynasty to seize and consolidate
local power - these were the "war lords", who reverted back to
an almost feudal situation in parts of the countryside. Reformers like Dr. Sun
Yat-Sen (who spent time studying in Hawai'i)
advocated adopting the democratic ideals of the West and worked with others to
create a Republic. Another important group emerged in this chaotic
situation, advocating an even more radical Western ideology to apply to China's ills. Citing
the ideas of Marxist socialism, the Chinese Communist party was founded
in 1921 and advocated drastic renunciation of traditional society, and
revolutionary socialist restructuring of the society.
Violence, instability and
civil conflict erupted in the vacuum created by the collapse of the Ch'ing
Dynasty and the traditional state system. The struggle to find a new
political and social model to stabilize China and restore true sovereignty
continued well into the 20th century. The pressures of New
Imperialism and industrial intrusion dramatically contributed to the
destruction of the traditional foundations of a great empire which had lasted
for over two thousand years. This collapse propelled Chinese civilization
into the 20th century in a state of weakness, instability and
uncertainty.
INTERESTING
WEB SITES
IMPERIALISM :
INTERNET SOURCES
CH'ING CHINA
EAST ASIAN
INTERNET SOURCEBOOK
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