CHAPTER ONE:
THE RADICAL PHASE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Last Unit,
we traced the opening stages of the French Revolution, beginning with the
liberal achievements National/Legislative Assembly achieved between 1789 -
1792. This period is referred to as the Liberal, Bourgeois or Middle Class
phase of the revolution. During this "liberal" or "middle
class" phase,
The leaders of the new revolutionary
Assembly in 1792 faced intense opposition and hostility from elites who
lost their privileges. There was also pressure from the frustrated poor
who felt they had gained little from the revolution; in particular the
mobilized urban poor (sans culottes) wanted more direct action to address
issues of poverty. These challenging forces pulled on this new government
from above and below. And critically, there was also the added strain of war;
RADICAL CHANGES
The radical phase of the
revolution was a result of increased tensions. By Fall 1792, the revolution
seemed increasingly under threat. Conservative groups continued to openly
demonstrate hostility and even treasonous behavior – even to the point of
supporting and aiding the other countries at war with
In
September 1792, this revolutionary leadership took their first radical step -
declaring the creation of a Republic. The monarchy was officially
ended; the National Convention would rule alone. Revolutionary momentum
then led to a trial of the now-obsolete monarch Louis XVI on charges of treason
against the state and the revolution. He was found guilty; in a vivid
indication of the radical turn the revolution had taken, Louis (and later
Marie) were beheaded in early 1793.
The
new
RADICAL CHANGES
The Jacobins leading the
National Convention felt that their future, and the future of the revolution as
a whole, depended on the support of the poor masses. The justification was that
the only way to defend against the threats of absolutist enemies within and on
the borders of revolutionary
Jacobin
policies targeted political as well as economic and social conditions,
resulting in the most controversial and, in the long term, most
influential consequences of the French revolution. Based on
Enlightenment belief in the ability of humans to directly restructure
society, the Jacobin leadership attempted to redress deep and long standing
problems of poverty and severe economic inequality.
POLITICAL
POLICIES:
Initially, the radical
leadership undertook to make the government not only constitutional, but truly
democratic. The leaders formalized a system of universal male
suffrage. This was a truly radical step - all men were to vote, even if
they owned no property. This was the greatest extension of political power
ever seen - far more democratic than voting rights in the
Even though later the
property-less masses had this voting power taken away, the memory and
example of mass democracy was an influential legacy of the Jacobin
period. Later radicals and revolutionaries all over the world continued
to push for broader voting rights throughout the 1800's and into the
1900's. Later, women suffragists will also push for true democracy
in the long fight to gain the vote for women in liberal systems.
ECONOMIC
POLICIES:
To address the dramatic
economic differences in the country, the Jacobins seized land from aristocrats
and redistributed this property to the peasants - to expand land
ownership. Although it was during the liberal phase that limited seizure
and selling of land had begun; however, the Jacobins carried out an intensified
and more conscious policy of redistributing wealth. This massive
property redistribution was dramatic and radical - going far beyond what
classical liberals felt was an acceptable role of the state.
In the cities, responding
to the desperate conditions of the sans-culottes, Jacobins implemented extreme state
intervention, regulation and economic control. A number of policies
actively and directly addressed hunger and unemployment.
This degree
of state control (nationalization) of the economy went far beyond the
mercantile policies under absolutism; the Jacobins were attempting to plan
and coordinate the economy in the name of the state and the poor classes.
In short, in the cities and
the countryside, the Jacobins went far beyond the limited role of
government envisioned by classical liberal revolutionaries, creating the model
of an interventionist, active government with the responsibility
for alleviating social and economic problems and inequalities. These radical
policies became the basis for later ideas of state control and responsibility
which evolved into the influential ideology of socialism.
Socialism was born out of a radical desire to further transform society;
revolutionary goals born out of the chaotic upheaval of the French Revolution.
SOCIAL
POLICIES:
To move towards greater
equality, there were other steps taken to eliminate age-old class
distinctions. French citizens were required to use informal language and
to address all in their community as "citizen" rather than class
based titles or names. They were supposed to wear more informal clothes; fancy
frilled clothes became the mark of an 'anti-revolutionary'. Equality of
education became a goal as well, leading to the influential policy of expanding
educational access to rural areas and lower classes. The attempt to reduce
class differences, and the goal of state-based expansion of educational
opportunity to improve equality were also key Jacobin initiatives, and
inspiration for later such movements throughout
Many Jacobins (radical
products of the Enlightenment) made clear they were not only hostile to the
Catholic Church but to Christianity itself. Fervent, even militant secularism
and even atheism on the part of key Jacobins resulted in a number of very
controversial policies, including the confiscation of churches for public uses
(i.e. schools and food storehouses). The calendar (with its Christian based
holidays) was revised, using seasonal, nature-based names like Thermidor. To replace
what radicals saw as the superstitious, conservative presence of Catholicism,
Jacobin leaders attempted to create a new belief system, the Cult of
Reason. There were attempts to institute civic festivals celebrating
reason, in place of religious festivals and traditions. The Jacobins'
anti-Catholic policies represented the extreme outcome of secular ideas of the
Enlightenment.
OPPOSITION
Many in
FIGHTING THE WAR
Despite these problems, the
Jacobins were able to demonstrate success in waging the still on-going war with
outside powers. Radical leaders had to contend with the *continued*
danger from several conservative powers (
1) Due to the
abolishment of aristocratic privileges in earlier years, military status and
promotion in the French army was based primarily on merit rather than one's
family status. Promotion in the French army, as a result, now reflected ability,
not class. In the armies of Old Order powers such as
2) French leaders in
1793-1794 further added to this military strength by using another advantage
NATIONALISM
Using the strength of a
citizen army required the Jacobins to undertake steps that would prove
extraordinarily influential. Recognize, this radical government, which did
not have popular political support, needed to mobilize citizens to fight
and sacrifice in a war. These drafted soldiers had to be given a reason
to fight; they were not going to fight out of loyalty to the government, the
Jacobins. The reason communicated to these drafted troops was that they
needed to fight "to protect the French as a nation and a
people". The revolutionary government, instead of asking for
allegiance and loyalty to the specific government of France (the unpopular
Jacobins) asked soldiers to demonstrate their loyalty to
The definition of
The emerging idea of
national identity was a radical departure in that it cut across earlier
concepts of identity; during the centuries of the Old Order, identity
("who I am") was closely linked to class, religion, and/or local
region. Traditionally, loyalty to the state meant loyalty to the leader
(king/queen/emperor/tzar) since under absolutism, the state WAS the
monarch. However, these new appeals to nationalism asked those in
Flags and songs created and
used during the French Revolution, instead of honoring the king or dynasty, now
represented and glorified the French people as a distinct and proud
nation, a nation that had to fight other foreign peoples to protect their heritage
and their revolution. A new French flag, created in the early stages of the
revolution, replaced the earlier flag of
Allons enfants de la
Patrie
Let us go, children of the fatherland
Le jour de gloire est
arriv.
Our day of Glory has arrived.
Contre nous, de la
tyrannie,
Against us stands tyranny,
L'etandard sanglant
est lev,
The bloody flag is raised,
l'etandard sanglant
est lev,
The bloody flag is raised.
Entendez-vous, dans
la compagnes.
Do you hear in the countryside
Mugir ces farouches
soldats
The roar of these savage soldiers
Ils viennent jusque
dans nos bras
They come right into our arms
Egorger vos fils,
To cut the throats of your sons,
vos compagnes.
your country
Aux armes citoyens!
To arms, citizens!
Formez vos
bataillons,
Form up your battalions
Marchons, marchons!
Let us march, Let us march!
Qu'un sang impur
That their impure blood
Abreuve nos sillons.
Should water our fields
The powerful, emotional
force of unifying and mobilizing people based on a common conception of
national identity and loyalty was one of the most important consequences of the
French Revolution; we discuss the evolving ideals and dramatic implications of
nationalism in later chapters. In the short term, recognize, nationalism
enabled the unpopular leadership of Jacobin
THE REIGN OF
TERROR
Between 1792 - 1794, the
Jacobin leadership attempted many extraordinarily radical changes in a very
short space of time. The problem was, most of these changes were not supported
by the majority of French citizens. In response to increasing resistance,
the revolutionary Jacobin government became more dictatorial,
tightening its grip and ultimately resorting to mass executions to quiet those
opposing their policies. In a tragic pattern seen in many revolutions, to
protect the earlier gains of the revolution, leaders became increasingly
repressive to those who opposed their policies, becoming more authoritarian,
arbitrary and brutal - and they ending up destroying many of the revolution's
early achievements.
In the face of increased
hostility, the Jacobin-controlled National Convention created a powerful
executive committee to maintain control - the Committee for Public Safety
(also called the Committee of Twelve). In their impatience to stamp out
counter-revolutionaries and obstacles to their revolutionary changes, this
twelve man dictatorship ignored most of the newly acquired legal protections
that protected the rights of French citizens. "Trials" became a
joke, as all those deemed 'anti-revolutionary' - whether untrustworthy
aristocrats, hostile middle class citizens, and troublesome peasants and
sans-culottes were found quickly and inevitably guilty of treason against the
revolution - and executed by guillotine.
The use of state terror to
hold onto revolutionary power reached its peak between Fall 1793 - Summer
1794. Over these months, it estimated that over 40,000 French citizens
were executed. While some of these people were undoubtedly hostile to
the revolution and possibly were real threats, many victims of the Terror simply
just did not display adequate obedience and support. Questioning or
criticizing Jacobin leaders became the definition of treason! (see
Robespierre's justification)
This episode, where the
leadership espousing the good and rights of the "people" was actually
executing anyone who disagreed with its vision, is known as the Reign of
Terror. The bloodshed and terror of this time came to represent for many
the worst excesses of the French Revolution. For conservative
voices, it was proof of the danger of revolution and of extending power to the
masses. For others, this descent into terror and repression was a tragic end of
a positive radical promise and beginning. The Jacobin phase generated
passionate responses in the 18th century - and still to the present day; some
will continue to support the equalizing and socialist ideals and goals of the
Jacobins (while criticizing its dictatorial methods); others will see this
radical episode as proof of the need for slower change in a society.
Ultimately, the Terror
turned on itself, " The Revolution devoured her own children."
Internal tensions and competition between Committee of Public Safety leaders
resulted in a flurry of accusations of treason and betrayal; they started
attacking and even executing each other. The revolutionary hero Danton
was accused of treason by the more radical leaders Robespierre and St. Just,
and executed in 1794. Just a few weeks later, Robespierre and St. Just were
themselves executed when other members of the Committee of Public Safely turned
against them. After these executions, the radical Jacobin government
collapsed. The radical phase was over, but the legacies echo to the present
day.
Interesting
Links
INTERNET SOURCES: FRENCH REVOLUTION