Chapter Three
Feudal
MEDIEVAL
The fall of the Roman
Empire in the late 400's CE ushered in a formative, thousand year period in
The relationships and
patterns by which Europeans survived during this period of violence and
instability deeply influenced later developments in European culture, social
relations and political development. The Medieval age of European
development is often broken into different phases: Early Middle Ages
(circa 500 - 900); Central Middle Ages (900-1100); High Middle Ages
(1100-1300); Late Middle Ages (1300 - 1500) For the purpose of providing
background, we will summarize briefly the key characteristics, and legacies, of
this entire Medieval period.
TRIBAL INFLUENCES
A critical aspect of
this Medieval period is that, during these Centuries, Greco-Roman heritage
blended with traditions of the many different tribal peoples who inhabited
We cannot provide a
comprehensive discussion of all of the tribal peoples who inhabited or moved
into and impacted developments in
Tribal cultures shared a
common emphasis on kinship. Blood ties and lineage were the primary bases
of identification and loyalty. These groups were tribal in nature, but
most were not nomadic. Land possession in fact was the fundamental
measure of wealth and status. This emphasis on land ownership remained a
fundamental part of Middle Ages culture. Another common feature among these
tribal cultures was the militaristic nature of their society. A warrior
elite, and warrior based tribal chief, dominated the society; this elite based
their power on military prowess and their ability to provide protection.
A related tribal tradition which deeply influenced Middle Ages culture was the
importance of reciprocal relationships in the tribe. Leadership
and structure in the tribe was sustained through established personal and
individual obligations between members of the tribe - in particular the trust
and duties owed by and between chiefs and warriors. Chiefs ruled based on
the support of the warrior elite in the tribe, and in turn shared power and wealth
with this military elite. This reciprocal relationship became a defining
feature of feudal society, providing some degree of structure during the
Medieval age of
EARLY MIDDLE AGES
Throughout the 4th and
5th centuries AD, as Roman control declined in the West, an aggressive wave of
Huns from the East caused the displacement of several tribes, sending some deep
into the weakly defended Italian peninsula. The sacking of the city of
However, the Merovingian
and Carolingian kingdoms were *not* in fact true kingdoms. These monarchs
did not rule with the same degree of central control that the Roman Caesars had
possessed. Frankish kings did not establish a formal bureaucratic system;
the kingdom was tied together by individual oaths of loyalty and reciprocal
rewards. There was no effective bureaucracy, no court system and no centralized
tax system. Laws and economic measures differed between regions in the
kingdom. At its height, the
As the Carolingian
kingdom fell apart, Europeans faced a dramatic increase in violence and
instability. The collapse of any central leadership, even a loose and weak one,
meant the end of structured law and order. Since there was no established
state army; there was no clear protection from outside invaders, bandits or
aggressive neighbors. To make matters worse, as the Carolingian kingdom
was unraveling (by the 800's CE),
By 900
FEUDALISM
Feudalism is a situation
where there is no effective central political power or effective central leadership
- in other words there is no state or empire. In feudal
In feudal
THE FEUDAL ELITE
As the Carolingian
empire declined, powerful regional leaders, feudal lords, carved out their own
territory in which they had political, military, economic and even religious
dominance. These feudal lords based their power on their control over
large estates (manors). Control and ownership of land was the only
reliable measure of wealth in a society in upheaval since land, unlike currency
or precious metals, was of permanent value. With land, one could produce
food and resources. Thus, using their land based wealth, local leaders
created the second key element their local power - a private military force.
Feudal lords enlisted the military commitment and services of ex-Carolingian
soldiers, tribal warriors or transient "soldiers of
fortune." Warriors who entered into private military service
were called knights. Once a knight entered into a relationship with a
particular feudal lord, that knight became a vassal. A vassal was of lesser
status than the feudal lord, but was still part of the military elite which
dominated
RECIPROCAL DUTIES - THE FEUDAL RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between
the feudal lord and the vassal was reciprocal. They had mutual and binding
obligations, made explicit through several oaths. First and foremost, a
vassal owed his feudal lord his military service. This meant that if the lord's
lands or family were threatened, the vassal was expected to fight. The vassal
was always on call defensively. In terms of offensive assistance, however, if
the feudal lord initiated violence, the vassal had only limited obligations to
join in an offensive war for his lord, usually only about 40 days out of the
year. After those obligatory days were met, the vassal could legitimately
refuse to join in an aggressive campaign.
A vassal also pledged
his loyalty to a feudal lord. Loyalty, or fealty, was an extremely important
concept since loyalty was all that stood between feudal society and complete
chaos. When a knight joined the private army of a feudal lord and became his
vassal, he made two oaths. The first oath was that of homage -
whereby the vassal recognized the superior status and power of the feudal
lord. The vassal also made an oath of fealty (loyalty). These
oaths were usually made in public, and often in a church to solidify the
relationship. (see
example) To break one's oath of fealty/loyalty was to commit a felony, the
most serious civil crime one could commit in this culture.
A vassal was obligated
to provide hospitality to the feudal lord and his entourage if he came to visit
his fief/home. This was often an expensive obligation and feudal lords
were known to contain their own expenditures by traveling constantly to the
homes of their vassals. Other expenses the vassal was expected to
absorb included the obligation to provide ransom to free one's feudal lord if
they were taken as prisoner.
A final obligation a
vassal had was to help the feudal lord in running his manor. This
required the vassal to answer the call for "suit to court". A
feudal lord could call their vassal at any time to provide counsel - to sit on
a warrior council and decide or implement manor law, make key decisions (such
as going to war), and provide other advice as needed. The Germanic term
for this vassal/warrior council was comitatus; in
In return for military
services, the feudal lord owed certain things to the vassal. Primarily,
the lord gave wealth to the vassal. Usually, the feudal lord actually gave a
piece of land to the vassal - this was called a fief. (see example)
Traditionally, based on feudal law, ownership of land was the vassal's as
long as the vassal fulfilled his responsibilities. This grant of
land, or fief, was highly valued. It provided the vassal (and his family)
with land ownership, food and resources and gave the vassal power over the
lower class people who lived in that territory.
The feudal lord was also
responsible for protecting the family of any vassal who was killed. The
children were protected as wards of the feudal lord until they married (if a
daughter) or made the pledge as a vassal (if a son). Widows (and the property
that they controlled) were to be protected by the feudal lords as well. In
essence, the vassal achieved a kind of insurance for his family by entering the
service of a feudal lord. This was a critical obligation in the eyes of
vassal and as we see later, to break this reciprocal obligation meant rebellion
and loss of control for a feudal lord.
If this sounds like a
contract, that is accurate; this reciprocal relationship between the feudal
lord and vassal was in fact an informal contract between two parties. (see contemporary
description) It was not held together by a court or written law, but rather
by trust, oaths, social pressures and a strong sense of loyalty. To help
sustain this critical, stabilizing relationship many feudal oaths took place in
public (lots of witnesses) and in a church. (see example)
Reciprocal obligations were made as holy oaths; breaking these oaths therefore
not only had political and civil, but also religious consequences. If both
parties fulfilled their obligations, then both benefited. In essence, in a
society where there were no formal structures to provide stability, people
turned to each other and entered into a number of reciprocal relations to
fulfill these needs. Feudal lords gained protection for their territory,
themselves and their families by creating a private army. Knights/vassals
gained land, wealth and power, as well as stability and insurance, by pledging
themselves as part of feudal lord's army.
Recognize, feudal
society was at its heart a male dominated culture. Military strength and
warrior virtues were held in the highest regard, not intellect or scholarship.
Even economic power was subservient to military might. Elite women of the
powerful families had influence only in one area - property ownership and
economic management. Those women who inherited property had a prominent
economic role. However, the only way women could protect that property was to
rely on the military protection provided by the warriors; this was ensured
through marriage. Political power still depended on having or controlling those
with weapons. Thus, the Medieval period was a time when women had very little
formal or institutionalized status.
MANORIALISM
The Middle Ages were
dominated by the military elite and their families. However men and women of
the noble classes were only a fraction of the total population. Most
Europeans were part of the lower classes and were completely dependent on the
lords and vassals for protection and leadership. As a result of this
dependency, these other groups had to give in to the demands of the lords and
vassals.
The second key
relationship that gave structure to feudal society was that between the land
owner (whether a lord or vassal) and those who lived on and worked the land -
the peasants and serfs. This relationship was the "manorial"
relationship. While reciprocal, it was based on severe exploitation of
the peasant class. Critical to understanding this relationship is recognizing
how violent the times were. The vast majority of
For these peoples in the
Middle Ages, the desperate need was for security. Facing threats from bandits, Norsemen
or aggressive armed men, poor, vulnerable agricultural peoples could not turn
to a state or empire for protection. Instead, they were forced to turn to the
nearest feudal lords and their armies. Those who already lived/worked on the
manor of a powerful feudal lord relied on the protection of his vassal
army. Others moved into or were absorbed into these protected manors; they
had to accept the terms laid down by the feudal lord. Over time, some peasants
were even forced to give up their freedom of movement in return for the right
to live in a protected area or the right to cower behind the castle walls of the
feudal lord. These most exploited peasants were the serfs - persons tied
to the land. Serfs did not even have the right to leave the manor.
The status of serf was inherited by the children; serfdom took root during this
Medieval period, and remained an influential presence in parts of
In return for the
protection of the lord and his army, peasants, free or serf, gave up all chance
of economic betterment and virtually all freedom. Free peasants and serfs
owed an extraordinary number of obligations to the land owners in exchange for
protection. First and foremost, they owed their labor. Without the
backbreaking labor of the agricultural workers, land had no value. Thus
peasants/serfs were responsible for working portions of the manor. If they were
fortunate enough to have their own land, they also owed a portion of their own
production to the lord or vassal. In addition, peasants/serfs had to do any odd
jobs that were needed (called boon work); this included tasks such as taking
care of animals, cutting wood, and fixing fences. Finally, with whatever
personal food or resources they were able to accumulate or save, peasants and
serfs had to pay taxes to the feudal lord/vassal. For instance, to get married,
to have a son inherit the family farm, to gather firewood or graze animals in
the lord's lands - for all of these activities, the agricultural worker had to
pay a tax in the form of goods or food. Recognize, all of these economic obligations
were in addition to the taxes peasants and serfs owed to the Catholic Church;
this religious tax, called a tithe, was usually close to 10% of their
production.
Bottom line, this
agricultural class found it impossible to accumulate any wealth and for centuries
remained in a situation of extreme poverty and almost complete lack of
freedom. What the peasants and serfs did receive in return was the protection
of the lord's army. It is important to understand why people would enter
into this kind of unequal relationship. The answer is simple - only by giving
into the demands of the military elite, only by agreeing to this exploitative
reciprocal agreement, could a defenseless peasant hope to survive the violence
of this age. To survive, to achieve some kind of stability, millions of
people suffered repression, impoverishment and exploitation.
As we will address, it
took centuries for those in the peasant class to break free of the
social and economic stratification created during the Middle Ages, and remnants
of this class difference certainly still exist in
THE ROLE OF THE
We have discussed two
out of the three principal groups that made up Medieval
The situation of the
Church in the Middle Ages was both powerful *and* vulnerable. The Church was a
powerful institution in terms of land ownership, and more importantly, in terms
of moral and religious authority. The vast majority of Europeans throughout the
Middle Ages were Christians. Recognize, in
In addition, it was the
Catholic Church which sustained some slight degree of scholarship and literacy
during the Central Middle Ages, producing stunning illustrated manuscripts such
as the Book of Kells.
Although the emphasis was narrowly focused on theological studies and religious
issues, the continuance of Western literacy and intellectual pursuit during
this period was almost entirely left to the Catholic Church.
However, in terms of the
basic elements of military power and protection, the Church was weak. The
Church needed protection for Church lands and Church officials, especially the
many monasteries and abbeys dotted throughout
The obvious point is
that during the Central Middle Ages feudal lords - because they had the land
wealth to build a military, and thus a military capable of providing protection
- used that power to extract wealth and obligations, making extensive demands
on anyone living in their private manor. Middle Ages society was made up
of an intricate web of reciprocal relationships - resulting in many powerful
legacies and influences we will continue to see as we trace developments in
Early Modern
GO TO
CHAPTER FOUR
BACK TO
CHAPTER TWO
BACK TO
UNIT ONE PAGE
