CHAPTER TWO -
CITY AND FACTORY LIFE
In an
industrializing society, one significant consequence (then and now) is
the permanent change in the lifestyle and living standards for majority of the
population, those employed in this new industrial direction. In the early 19th
century, industrialization occurring in Europe and the
This rapid shift to urban
society generated enormous costs for those involved. There were very obvious
"growing pains" for a society undergoing industrialization. Certainly,
by the end of the century (late 1800's) some of these problems were
finally being addressed, however, the slow pace of reform intensified already existing social/economic tensions. Rapid
urbanization, exploitative and dangerous factory conditions, and gross
inequality in the distribution of the new wealth led to frustration and anger,
fueling support for radical ideas of social change, in particular providing the
fertile ground for the growth of socialism.
BETTER OR WORSE?
Historians passionately
disagree about how to interpret the social/economic effects of the Industrial
Revolution. Some historians emphasize that over time there was an
increase in goods and technological support, thus concluding that in the long
run, living standards improved for all in an industrial society
including the working class. Others emphasize the fact that the wealth being
generated remained almost exclusively in the hands of elite political
and economic groups for decades (and continued gross inequities continue well
into the current century). They point to abusive, exploitative factory
conditions and the gritty ugliness of 19th century (1800’s) city
life and conclude that industrialization was, overall, a step back for the
masses until well into the mid-20th century.
You have to come to your
own conclusion. But a consensus position seems to be that serious problems and
appalling conditions certainly emerged during the early stages of
industrial growth in
It is essential, then, to
understand these negative human costs of industrialization to better comprehend
the rise of movements such as radical socialism. Recognize, this process of
shifting an entire population from agriculture to urban-based industrial
production is still ongoing today, and continues to result in wrenching costs
for those living through it in developing societies in Latin America, Africa
and
RAPID URBANIZATION
The ability to generate
mobile steam power enabled factory production in cities, where production
centers were closer to transportation and concentrated labor. Following the
jobs, displaced rural workers migrated into the cities in enormous numbers and
over a relatively short space of time. The result was urban overcrowding
and squalor.
In these exploding
cities, it was not uncommon for two or more families to live in one single
room. Obviously, such cramped housing
was substandard and unhealthy. Slums sprang up, creating filthy urban sprawl in
cities like
The point is often made
that many of these people were coming to the cities from situations of
miserable, grinding rural poverty so that this shift to dreadful squalor
in the city was not actually a decline in conditions. However, even if one
accepts this argument that the masses were just as badly off in terms of
specific economic measures such as income, the perception of poverty was
heightened in these urban settings. Urban poverty certainly seemed more severe
due to the density of the slums, the lack of nature to offset filth and squalid
sights. Disease was certainly more of a threat for those in urban versus
rural poverty. And these destitute urban dwellers were living right next
to the nice houses and clubs of the thriving middle and upper classes.
Bottom line, they were more aware of their poverty.
FACTORY
CONDITIONS
The early factories which
enabled mass production, wealth and power were often very dangerous places for
workers. There were a number of ways in which work in these new factories took
its toll. Hours
were grueling. The average work day was 13 - 15 hours per day; the work
week was six, and sometimes seven, days a week. And these exhausting hours were
spent in conditions that were extremely hazardous. Many untrained workers were
operating new machines and rudimentary technology that was dangerous. Worker
injuries were common; if one was harmed, there was no disability or
compensation. Injury or maiming simply meant unemployment and scraping a living
off the streets. There was little care taken to protect workers from
hazards of chemicals and toxic air quality. Women became infertile; men
developed chronic, ultimately deadly conditions. Children developed permanent
disfigurements and disabling conditions. The noise from constant
operation of early machines damaged hearing; even just standing in front of a
loom or machine for 14 hours a day resulted in permanent physical
malformation especially among younger workers. Many factories were also
fire traps. Mining,
which provided the necessary coal for steam power, was brutally debilitating
and dangerous work.
An additional strain on
early factory workers was the loss of control and freedom as a laborer. Factory
labor was regulated, structured and highly restricted. While agricultural labor
was certainly demanding and backbreaking work, in the fields there were rhythms
based on seasons, and the diverse tasks that had to be completed. In the
factory, the whistle and factory clock structured the day. Next to the image of
the steam train, another symbol of industrial, urban existence was the spread
of public clocks; time was now the master of work patterns, not nature.
And instead of undertaking a number of different jobs during the day, factory
workers spent 13 - 15 hours a day doing the same thing. Factory work
consisted of repetitive, boring functions. This was especially true as
factories began turning towards making goods based on standardized, or
interchangeable parts (the beginning of assembly line production). One laborer
was not making an entire product, but only one small piece - over and over.
Many of these early factory
workers were women and young
children. They were valued for their ability to do intricate work requiring
dexterity and nimble fingers. Women and children worked in the
coal mines (since they could crawl in smaller spaces) and children were
often sent in to climb around and clean machinery. Women and children were seen
as more easily ordered around; they were obedient workers, and they could be
paid *much* less. So, the miserable, debilitating conditions discussed above
were endured by children as young as 7 years old! Even when child
labor laws began to gradually address such abuses in
And
the worker's reward for all of this labor was not a product (that belonged
to the owner); the return was a very low wage. It is estimated that even as the
economy of
SOCIAL TENSIONS
Recognize,
not all factories were extreme in their exploitation; not all laborers toiled
under miserable conditions. Some skilled workers sustained a valued economic
position, and some factory owners were more humane than others. Also, for some countries
industrializing later, and at a slower pace on the European continent, the ills
and wrenching "growing pains" were less pronounced than in
Governments in
WORKERS GROUPS
Since change was not
forthcoming from the "top" - i.e. the government and the economic elite,
what were the workers doing to push for changes? The fact is those harmed by
exploitative conditions were not in a position to effectively pressure the
elite. The emerging urban working class, even in the constitutional systems of
Economic
pressures were also extremely limited in industrializing societies throughout
the 1800's. Unions were illegal for most of the 19th century in all industrial
societies. Efforts to organize workers were often met with legal,
state-enforced resistance. Union activity was illegal; union involvement meant
prison or worse. Clashes between union advocates and the factory owners
(supported by governmental forces) often led to violence and death. Even when
unions were legalized, strikes and collective actions usually remained illegal
for several more decades. Workers fought, sometimes in bloody clashes, with
employers and governments to remove these restrictions. Ultimately, by the end
of the 1800's in England (and later in the U.S.), unions ultimately gained more
power, but the fact remains that organized labor was simply not an influential
force until the very end of the 19th century. The fact that there
was a surplus of labor also weakened economic influence. Employers could and
would fire disruptive workers; strikers were not just breaking the law, they
would be fired. And there were plenty of hungry and desperate laborers waiting
for those jobs.
The inability of the
working class to effectively organize to exert political or economic pressure
to improve conditions led to an increase in frustrated, violent episodes. Riots
by workers did little to change things, but did reflect the intensity of anger.
For example, beginning in 1812, there were a series of outbursts known
collectively as the Luddite movement. "Luddites" were usually
skilled workers, those who previously made a living as craftspeople and
artisans such as lacemakers and nail makers. With their skilled labor
replaced by machines, these workers were reduced to unskilled jobs and
dramatically reduced social/economic status or even unemployment. The anger at
this displacement was vented on the machines and the factories themselves.
Luddites smashed and burnt down machines and factories, resulting in
destruction, injury and imprisonment. These violent riots, obviously, did
not halt the momentum of the industrial revolution. Violent lashing-out did nothing
to improve worker conditions. In fact, the term "Luddite" has entered
our vocabulary - used to refer to futile or useless resistance to unstoppable
changes. Luddites did however indicate the undercurrent of passionate
anger created by industrial changes.
Increased frustration and
impatience led many to support more radical forces of change. Since the
economic and political elite displayed only a limited willingness to address
urban and factory problems, more of the working class by the middle of the century
were willing to support parties and groups pushing for more substantial
social/economic change - based on socialist ideas. Thus, another
important consequence of the Industrial Revolution was the rise of socialism
in the 19th century.
INTERESTING LINKS
HOW THE OTHER
HALF LIVES: TENEMENTS IN 19TH CENTURY
THE VICTORIAN WEB (lots of really great
links)
GO TO CHAPTER THREE
BACK TO CHAPTER ONE
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TO UNIT SIX PAGE
